POLITICAL PARTIES
Formal Definition
A political party is:
“A group of organized citizens
with a broad set of common
beliefs who join together to
elect candidates to public
office and determine public
policy.”
My Definition:
A political party is: “A group that
joins together to elect candidates
to public office” and determine
public policy.”
Party Identification:
Self-proclaimed preference for
one party over another
Factions and Founding Fathers
• The name was given by Thomas Jefferson to
describe political parties
• Founders disliked factions, felt they were
motivated by ambition and self-interest
• G.Washington’s Farewell Address warned
against forming political parties
Factions Today
• Today the term refers to subgroups within a
political party acting in pursuit of some
special interest or position. (A faction just is a
fraction of the whole.)
The Meaning of Party
(view Hippocampus “Functions of Political Parties
• Tasks of the Parties
– Linkage Institution: the channels through which people’s concerns
become political issues on the government’s policy agenda
– Parties Pick Candidates
– Parties Run Campaigns
– Parties Give Cues to Voters
– Parties Articulate Policies
– Parties Coordinate Policymaking
Each Party Has Three Faces
3-D Political Parties
• The Party in the Electorate
• The Party Organization
• The Party in Government
Face #1.
• “Party-in-the-electorate”consists of all those
individuals who claim an (emotional)
attachment to the political party
– They feel some loyalty but usually don’t do much
more than vote
– They use the party as a cue to decide how to vote
Discussion:
Why has political party membership
declined?
What are benefits of membership in
an interest group compared with
benefits of membership in a political
party?
So why be a party animal?
To gain control of government
by recruiting
candidates
To oppose the party
in power when
yours is the “out”
party
To stimulate
interest in issues
and run elections
To focus on a
broader set of
political positions
(than interest groups)
Let’s Review the
Party-in-the Electorate
Includes all the people who label themselves as
Democrats and Republicans
– No formal requirements
• (no dues or membership cards required)
– Can be formally registered as party member
• but can change party affiliation at any time
The Party in the Electorate
• Party identification: a citizen’s self-proclaimed
preference for one party or the other
– Republican, Democrat, or Independent
• Ticket-splitting: increasing! Voting with one party
for one office and with another party for other
offices indicates less party loyalty
– Independents are most likely to split tickets.
– No state or race is completely safe due to split tickets.
The Party in the Electorate
Face #2.
(view Hippocampus: Organization of Parties
• Party Organization: the structural framework
which does the following…
– A. Recruits candidates!!
– B. Organizes caucuses, convention, election
campaigns
– C. Articulates positions in the elections
The Party Organizations: From the Grass
Roots to Washington
• The National Party Organizations
– National Convention: meetings of party
delegates every four years to choose a
presidential ticket and the party’s platform;
intended to clean up the old party caucus
system (when Congress party members chose the party’s
presidential candidate behind closed doors); first
convention chose candidate Martin van Buren (a
Dem)
– Party Platforms
Party Organization at the
National Level
• A National Convention is held every 4 years
– Used to nominate the presidential and vice presidential
candidates
– Develops the party platform (document outlining the
policies, positions, and principles of the party) but after
the convention candidates often ignore them in an effort
to appeal to a wide spectrum of voters (platforms are
controversial)
– Delegates attend
• They are more extreme than ordinary party members
• They often supported different party candidates in the primaries
so now they must settle on one candidate and a platform
The Party in Govt: Promises and Policy
Party Organizations
– National Committee: one of the institutions that
keeps the party operating between conventions
– National Chairperson: responsible for day-to-day
activities of the party; chosen by the parties’
presidential nominees
Party Organization at the
National Level continued
• A National Committee is chosen by state parties and
ratified by convention delegates to
– direct and coordinate party activities during the next 4
years
– Ratify the presidential nominee’s choice of a national
chairperson who is spokesperson for the party
– The chairperson and committee together
• plan the next campaign and convention,
• obtain financial contributions, and
• publicize the national party
How State Delegates are Chosen in the
Democratic Party
• National Committee sets complex formula
that changes over time. New rules:
– Reduced control of local party leaders
– More seats to women and minorities
– Delegates require all delegates to vote with their
state’s delegation; states’ delegates based on % of vote
each candidate won in primary elections
– 14% of seat for “superdelegates”; not pledged ahead
– Delegates LEFT of mainstream,
– Unintended consequences: allowed Republicans to
win 5 or 6 presidential races from 1968-88
But the real strength and power of a
national party is at
the state level.
Party Organization at the
State Level
• There are over 100 party organizations, each very
unique. But there are a few similarities:
– Each state party has a chairperson, a central committee,
and a numerous of local organizations
– The state central committee
• Consists of members from congressional districts chosen in
primary elections, conventions or local elections
• Controls funds
• Exerts little influence on party candidates once elected
• Usually consists of bitterly opposed factions (party bosses, elected
officials, or local factions)
The Party Organizations: From the Grass
Roots to Washington
• The 50 State Party Elections called Primaries (or caucus) have
weakened parties!!
– Closed primaries: Only people who have registered with the party can
vote for that party’s candidates.
– Open primaries: Voters decide on Election Day whether they want to
vote in the Democrat or Republican primary.
– Blanket primaries: Voters are presented with a list of candidates from
all parties.
– State parties are better organized in terms of headquarters and
budgets than they used to be.
(More on this in the next chapter!)
Party Organization at the
Local Level
• Withered!!! Party machines
once handed out patronage jobs
• Supported by
– District leaders,
– Precinct or ward captains,
– Party workers
• Much of the work is
coordinated by county
committees and their chairpersons
Let’s Review the Party Organization
• Both major parties have NATIONAL, STATE,
and LOCAL party organizations
• They are NOT like a corporation with a HQ and
Branch Offices
– State party organizations
• independent
• not under control of national offices
The Party Organizations: From the Grass
Roots to Washington
• These are the people that work for the party.
• Local Parties
– Party Machines: a type of political party organization that
relies heavily on tangible incentives to win votes and to
govern (e.g. money, jobs, favors…)
– Patronage: a job, promotion or contract given for political
reasons rather than merit; used by party machines
– Government now runs social welfare programs so party
machines are not needed
Party Machines
• Example: Tammany Hall, 1790s to the 1960s,
Democratic Party Machine in NYCity
– Local workers got out straight ticket party vote in
exchange for favors (contracts, jobs, welfare, …)
– Many party workers were paid, full-time
– Party operatives got “kickbacks” for govt. contracts
and jobs
– In 1870s, 1 out of 8 voters had a fed, state or local
government job!
Progressive Era Reforms
• Stricter voter registration laws (due to fraud)
• Competitive-bidding laws for govt. jobs
• Civil Service Reforms
– Hatch Act, 1939, made it illegal for federal civil
service employees to do political campaigning,
organization, endorsements, poll working…
Face #3.
• “Party-in-government” consists of the party
candidates who won elections and now hold
public office.
– President
• The party furnishes the pool of qualified applicants for
political and judicial appointments
– Members of Congress
• The party determines office space, committee assignments,
and power
• Party is best indicator of how member will vote in Congress
• Party Polarization
– Sophisticated computer programs that create House “safe seat”
districts (where legislators win with more than 55% of the vote)
– The media encourages stridency b/c it sells
The Party in Government:
Promises & Policy
• Party members actually elected to government
• Controls policy
• Coalition: a group of individuals with a common interest upon
which every political party depends
• Parties and politicians generally act on their campaign
promises.
America’s Political Landscape
Let’s Get This Party Started!
Party Eras in
American History
view Party Eras
• Party Eras
– Historical periods in which a majority of voters cling to the party in
power
• Critical Election
– An electoral “earthquake” where new issues and new coalitions
emerge
• Party Realignment
– The displacement of the majority party by the minority party, usually
during a critical election
Party Eras in
American History
• 1796-1824: The World’s First Party System
Emerged
– Federalists: (Hamilton) implied they were proConstitution
– Democratic-Republicans: (Jefferson) Implied
they were not monarchists
– Very geographical (NE-Federalist; South/WestRepublicans)
– Built from top to bottom
Second Party Era in
American History
• 1828-1856: Stable Two-Party System Emerged /
Jacksonian-Democrats versus the Whigs
– Modern Dem. party founded by Jackson; built from the
bottom up
– Political participation became a mass phenomenon
• Increase in population
• Laws gave suffrage to more people
• Parties built from ground (voters) up, not top down
• Abandoned caucuses where Congress members chose
the Presidential candidates and moved to National
Conventions
Party Eras in
American History
• 1860-1928: Parties Organize and Develop
Appeal - Two Republican Eras
– Republicans rose as the antislavery party
(only successful 3rd party!)
– 1896 election centered on industrialization
• Republicans  Northern (developed
powerful party machines in NY, PA, WI)
• Democrats  Southern/ Confederate
Party Eras in
American History
• Each state had only one dominant political
party so competition had to be within the
party
• Factions within the party…
– The Old Republican Guard (Stalwarts/Party
Leaders) versus
– The “mugwumps” or Progressives who feared
more immigrants would support the Republican
Party Machines
Party Eras in
American History
Republican Faction: the Progressive Reform Era
• Tried to curtail political parties
• Favored:
– primary elections to replace nominating
conventions
– nonpartisan elections
– Strict voter-registration requirements to reduce
fraud
– Civil Service reform (disliked patronage)
– Favored initiatives and referendums at state level
Party Realignment:
view Party Realignment and Dealignment
•A party disappears or there is a major
shift in party identification
•Realignment Elections:
•1828 (Jeffersonian-Democrats),
•1860 (Whig Party collapsed),
•1896 (William Jennings Bryan won Dem
candidacy and set Populist agenda)
•1932 (New Deal was the last one thus
far!)
Party Eras in
American History
• 1932-1964: The New Deal Coalition
– Voters shifted support from one party to the other
– New Deal coalition: forged by the Democrats;
consisted of urban working class, ethnic groups,
Catholics, Jews, the poor, Southerners
Party Eras in American History
Party Eras in American History
• 1968-Present: The Era of Divided Party
Government
– Divided government: one party controls Congress
and the other controls White House; due in part
to:
• Party de-alignment - disengagement of people from
parties as evidenced by shrinking party identification
• Party neutrality: people are indifferent towards the two
parties
An Era of Divided Government or
“Ticket Splitting”
• Since 1968, the nation
has been mostly
divided evenly
– Republicans have had
more success winning
the Presidency
– Until 1994 Democrats
controlled Congress
(but many Southern
Dems voted with
Republicans)
Polarized Politics
– Polarized Politics: The two parties are more
ideologically distinct from each other, more
loyal, and ideologically homogenous.
– Increases gridlock and frustrates cooperation
between the parties and branches.
– Distribution of ideology in Congress differs
from distribution w/in electorate
60
40
20
0
Polarization Score
80
100
Party Polarization: Senate
81
83
85
87
89
91
93
95
Congress
97
99
101
103
105
107
Party Eras in American History
• How Often Republican Representatives
vote with their Party
• How Often Democratic Representative vote
with their Party
Party Eras in American History
• Party Control of State Legislatures and
Governors
2013
Why a Two-Party System?
• Winner-take-all system
– Except ME and NE, whichever presidential candidate gets a plurality,
gets ALL the electoral votes
• Single-member districts no run-off elections for
top few vote-getters
• State Laws
– require that parties obtain a certain # of signatures to be placed on the
ballot (often determined by the total # of party votes rc’d in the last
election), must pay steep registration fees (approx. $100,000)
• Federal Election Commission rules restrict minor parties
from receiving federal matching funds in either the primary or general
elections
• Congressional committee seats are divvied up by the 2
parties
It’s all about who
hold the controls.
• Between 1968-2004:
– Democrats controlled all
three branches under
Jimmy Carter (1977-81) and
Bill Clinton (1993-2001)
– Republicans controlled all
three branches during GW
Bush’s 3rd and 4th years
– Generally prior to 1992,
voters preferred to give the
Democrats one branch and
Republicans the other.
Infamous Election 2000
• If Democratic candidate Al
Gore had rc’d 538 more
popular votes in FL, he
would have won the
Presidency.
• GW Bush actually lost the
popular vote by over a
half million votes but
carried the electoral
college by five votes.
(Coincidentally the Electoral
College has 538 members!)
Dealignment:
• Movement toward nonpartisanship and away
from political party membership and structure
• Why?
– less union membership,
– reduced religious observance,
– decreased party membership
Democratic Party Reversal
• Republican “red” states
and Democratic “blue”
states
• The 2000 map is almost a
complete reversal of the
1896 map when the
Democratic Party stood
for limited govt., states’
rights, and racial
segregation instead of
active government, nat’l
authority, and civil rights
Which is red?!
2000
2000
Election of 1896:
realigning election…
McKinley (Republican) forged a coalition in which businessmen,
professionals, skilled factory workers and prosperous farmers were
heavily represented; he was strongest in the Northeast and
industrial Midwestern states.
Bryan (Democrat) coalition with the Populist Party, and the
Silver Republicans
Strongest in the South, rural Midwest, and Rocky Mountain states.
Economic issues, including bimetallism, the gold standard, Free
Silver, and the tariff, were crucial.
Today
Political Efficacy:
voters feel they can make an
impact or bring about change
Cleavages:
the splitting of a political system
along ethnic, religious, class, or
ideological lines
Rational-Choice Theory:
consumer model of voting where
choice rather than identify is
crucial
The Big 2
The Truth about the Red, the Blue,
and their Budgets
• Under Clinton (who had a
Republican Congress for
most of his 8 years)
– the federal expenditures
fell
– Federal employment fell
– Clinton’s budgets
submitted to Congress
were smaller than those
approved by Congress
• Under Reagan (who had a
Democratic Congress) and
GW Bush (a Republican
Congress)
– The federal budget rose
– Federal employment
rose
– Reagan submitted
budgets larger than
those by the Democratic
Congress