Chapter 3
Consciousness
and the TwoTrack Mind
Sleep &Dreams
Sleep Research
"Death's Counterfeit"
(Shakespeare)
 Can't self-report. How study?
 EEG wave patterns
wave height
(amplitude)
wave length
(frequency per second)
wave regularity (smooth vs bursts)
 regular changes over time stages
 discovered by EEG analyses
Sleep/Waking Research
Poly – somno – graphy
physiological recordings across sleep
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
Electromyograph (EMG)
Electrooculograph (EOG)
Electrocardiograph (ECG)
Other bodily functions also observed
brain
muscles
eyes
heart
Measurements During Sleep
Electrodes:
brain waves EEG
eye movement EOG
muscles EMG
Cameras:
body movements
Neural Basis of Sleep
 Brain Regions
Ascending reticular activating
system
ARAS
Pons, medulla, thalamus,
hypothalamus, limbic system
 Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine and serotonin
Also norepinephrine,
dopamine, and GABA
6
Light > retina > suprachiasmatic nucleus
> pineal gland > secretion of melatonin
Melatonin regulates circadian rhythm
7
Sleep Stages and Sleep Cycles:
What is Measured?
Stages and Cycles of Sleep
Sleep stages refer to distinct patterns
of brain waves and muscle activity that
are associated with different types of
consciousness and sleep.
Sleep cycles refer to
the patterns of shifting
through all the sleep
stages over the course
of the night. We
“cycle” through all the
sleep stages in about
90 minutes on
average.
There
are
four
types
of
sleep.
Falling Asleep:
From Alert to Alpha
Eyes Closed
Alpha waves are the relatively slow brain
waves of a relaxed, awake state.
Falling asleep
 Yawning creates a brief boost in
alertness as your brain metabolism is
slowing down.
 Your breathing slows down.
 Brain waves become slower and
irregular.
 You may have hypnagogic (while
falling asleep) hallucinations.
 Your brain waves change from alpha
waves to NREM-1.
Non-REM Sleep Stages
Getting deeper into sleep…
but not dreaming yet
NREM-1
NREM-2
NREM-3
REM Sleep
Eugene
Aserinsky’s
discovery
(1953):
dreams
occurred
during
periods of
wild brain
activity and
rapid eye
movements
[REM sleep].
What happens during
REM sleep?
 Heart rate rises and
breathing becomes rapid.
 “Sleep paralysis” occurs
when the brainstem blocks
the motor cortex’s
messages and the muscles
don’t move. This is
sometimes known as
“paradoxical sleep”; the
brain is active but the body
is immobile.
 Genitals are aroused (not
caused by dream content)
and stay this way after REM
is over.
Stages of Sleep:
The 90 Minute Cycles
Through 8 Hours of Sleep
The length of REM sleep increases the longer you remain asleep.
With age, there are more awakenings and less deep sleep.
NREM-1
NREM-2
NREM-3
Why do we sleep? http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/10/15/112251/
What determines the quantity and rhythm of sleep?
The amount and
pattern of sleep
is affected by
biology, age,
culture, and
individual
variation.
Light and the
brain regulate
sleep.
 Age: in general, newborns need 16 hours of
sleep, while adults need 8 hours or less
 Individual (genetic) variation: some people
function best with 6 hours of sleep, others with
9 hours or more
 Culture: North Americans sleep less than
others, and less than they used to, perhaps
because of the use of light bulbs
 The circadian rhythm is hard to shift (jet lag).
 This rhythm can be affected by light, which
suppresses the relaxing hormone melatonin.
Why do we sleep?
What does sleep do for us?
1. Sleep protected our ancestors from
predators.
Species differences in sleep time
Supports ecological theories of sleep functions
LONG SLEEPERS:
•Easy food access
•Can hide from
predators
SHORT SLEEPERS:
•Foragers
•Cannot hide from
predators
Why do we sleep?
What does sleep do for us?
1. Sleep protected our ancestors from
predators.
2. Sleep restores and repairs the brain and
body.
3. Sleep builds and strengthens memories.
4. Sleep facilitates creative problem
solving.
5. Sleep is the time when growth
hormones are active.
Effects of
Sleep Loss/
Deprivation
Research shows that
inadequate sleep can
make you more likely
to:
 lose brainpower.
 gain weight.
 get sick.
 be irritable.
 feel old.
Sleep Loss Effects
by Body System
Sleep Loss/Deprivation=Accident Risk
Accident
Frequency
Sleep loss
results in
more
accidents,
probably
caused by
impaired
attention and
slower
reaction time.
“Sleep Hygiene”












Establish and maintain a regular sleep-wake cycle.
Reduce time spent in bed when not sleeping, particularly if feeling
frustrated or worried about difficulty falling asleep.
Leave the bed if having difficulty falling asleep and engage in a relaxing,
distractive activity, such as reading or watching television.
Engage in moderate exercise daily but avoid exercising right before
bedtime.
Establish a calm, quite bedroom setting. Remove the bedroom clock
from view at night.
Ensure a comfortable bedroom temperature.
Have a light snack before bed, but avoid excessive fluid intake.
Limit consumption of nicotine, caffeine, and alcohol, particularly before
bedtime.
Use sleep aids only occasionally.
Turn all screens off 1 hour before bed (don’t keep cell phone beside
bed).
Stop studying/working 1 hour before bed.
Get counselling for anxiety and depression.
• http://big.assets.huffingtonpost.com/2014_Be
foreBed1.png
Sleep Disorders
Are these people
dreaming?
 Night terrors refer to
sudden scared-looking
• Insomnia: persistent inability to
behavior, with rapid
fall asleep or stay asleep
heartbeat and
• Narcolepsy (“numb seizure”):
breathing.
sleep attacks, even a collapse
 Sleepwalking and
into REM/paralyzed sleep, at
sleeptalking run in
inopportune times
families, so there is a
• Sleep apnea (“with no breath”):
possible genetic basis.
repeated awakening after
These behaviors,
breathing stops; time in bed is
mostly affect
not restorative sleep
children, and occur in
• Restless leg syndrome - urge to
NONREM-3 sleep.
move one’s legs or other body
They are not
parts while attempting to sleep
considered dreaming.
Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy
(.22)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jTj3a2nHw
8k
(.41)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1PuvXpv0yD
M
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ucpf_OYvs
4E&list=PLv330AEkqQ3OphhwqlIQCyBTCfijV_vh
w&index=6
Sleep apnea
Sleep Disorders
• Insomnia: persistent
inability to fall asleep or stay
asleep
• Narcolepsy (“numb
Are these people
dreaming?
 Night terrors




Wake-up terrified
rapid heartbeat
Mostly children
NR-3 (not dreaming)
seizure”): sleep attacks, even  Sleepwalking
a collapse into REM/paralyzed
 Mostly children
sleep, at inopportune times
• Sleep apnea (“with no
 NR-3 stage (not
dreaming).
 Inherited (genetic)
breath”): repeated awakening
after breathing stops; time in  REM Behavior Disorder
bed is not restorative sleep
 REM but no paralysis!!
 Homicidal RBD (v. rare)
What Do We Dream About?
64%
sadness, fear, or anger
Aggressive > friendly ( 2:1 )
18%
happy or exciting
29%
in color
Dreams
the stream of images, actions, and
feelings, experienced while in REM sleep
What We Dream About
 Dreams often include
some negative event or
emotion, especially
failure dreams (being
pursued, attacked,
rejected, or having bad
luck).
 Dreams do NOT often
include sexuality.
 We may incorporate realworld sounds and other
stimuli into dreams.
 Dreams also include
images from recent,
traumatic, or frequent
experiences.
What We Dream About:
(Psychoanalytic Theory)
Sigmund Freud believed there was
often a hidden “latent content”
(conflicts, worries, and urges)
underneath the symbolic “manifest
content” (the plot, actions, and
images recalled) of dreams.
Theories of Dreaming
Freud: "wish fulfillment"
Secret wishes wrapped in a disguise
Boy, 14 dreams…
Father dies at controls of the plane
Plane dives toward earth
14-yr old tries to take controls of plane
Manifest Content
Surface meaning
Latent Content
Unconscious (“real”) meaning
Theories of Dreaming
Information Processing
( Synaptic housekeeping )
REM: scanning, sorting, filing
Brain sorts info into “wanted” and “unwanted”
-- Pruning of unwanted connections
-- Strengthening of wanted connections
Emotions: significance tags stamped
on new info
Function of Dreaming
Activation-Synthesis (Hobson, 1988)
Cortical synthesis and interpretation of neural
signals triggered by spontaneous burst of
activity within the brainstem (Pons)
Pons: sleep, eye movements, posture
No psychological meaning to pons firing
Brain regions that handle logical thought and
sensation from the external world shut down
Function of Dreaming
Activation-Synthesis (Hobson, 1988)
Dreaming merely a side-effect.
Research Support: PET scans during REM:
Frontal lobes (logic, planning): LOW
Limbic system (motiv, emotion): HIGH
Dream? The Brain’s “narrative engine”
trying to interpret limbic activity
Activation Synthesis Theory
Theories about Functions of Dreams
Theory
Explanation
Dreams provide a “psychic safety
Wish fulfillment valve”; they often express
otherwise unacceptable feelings,
(psychoanalytic theory) and contain both manifest
(remembered) content and a latent
content (hidden meaning).
Dreams help us sort out the day’s
Informationevents and consolidate our
processing
memories.
Regular brain stimulation from REM
Physiological
sleep may help develop and
function
preserve neural pathways.
REM sleep triggers impulses that
Activationevoke random visual memories,
synthesis
which our sleeping brain weaves
into stories.
Dream content reflects the
Cognitivecognitive
developmental dreamers’
development—his or her
theory
knowledge and understanding.
Lacks any scientific support;
dreams may be interpreted
in many different ways.
But why do we sometimes
dream about things we have not
experienced?
This may be true, but it does
not explain why we
experience meaningful
dreams.
The individual’s brain is
weaving the stories, which still
tells us something about the
dreamer.
Does not address the
neuroscience of dreams.
Altering Consciousness
Drugs
Psychoactive drugs are
chemicals introduced
into the body which alter
perceptions, mood, and
other elements of
conscious experience.
Addiction
 Many psychoactive
drugs can be harmful
to the body.
 Psychoactive drugs
are particularly
dangerous when a
person develops an
addiction on the
substance.
 Factors related to
addiction:
 tolerance
 withdrawal
 impact on daily life
of substance use
Tolerance
Tolerance of a
drug refers to
the diminished
psychoactive
effects after
repeated use.
Tolerance feeds
addiction
because users
take increasing
amounts of a
drug to get the
desired effect.
Withdrawal
 After the benefits of a substance wear off,
especially after tolerance has developed,
drug users may experience withdrawal
(painful symptoms of the body readjusting to
the absence of the drug).
 Withdrawal worsens addiction because users
want to resume taking the drug to end
withdrawal symptoms.
When does substance use
become a disorder?
 Tolerance: the need to use more to receive the
desired effect
 Withdrawal: the distress experienced when the
“high” subsides
 Using more than intended
 Persistent, failed attempts to regulate use
 Much time spent preoccupied with the
substance, obtaining it, and recovering
 Important activities reduced because of use
 Continued use despite aversive consequences
Depressants
Examples:
 alcohol
 barbiturates
 opiates
Depressants are chemicals
that reduce neural activity
and other body functions.
Effects of Alcohol Use
Impact on functioning
 Slow neural processing,
reduced sympathetic
nervous system activity, and
slower thought and physical
reaction
 Reduced memory
formation caused by
disrupted REM sleep and
reduced synapse formation
 Impaired self-control,
impaired judgment, selfmonitoring, and inhibition;
increased accidents and
aggression
Chronic Use:
Brain damage
Barbiturates
Barbiturates are tranquilizers--drugs that depress
central nervous system activity.
 Examples: Nembutal, Seconal, Amytal
 Effects: reducing anxiety and inducing sleep
 Problems: reducing memory, judgment, and
concentration; can lead to death if combined
with alcohol
Opiates:
Highly Addictive Depressants
 Opiates depress
nervous system
activity; this
reduces anxiety,
and especially
reduces pain.
 High doses of
opiates produce
euphoria.
 Opiates work at
receptor sites for
the body’s natural
pain reducers
(endorphins).
Opiates are
chemicals such
as morphine
and heroin that
are made from
the opium
poppy.
Stimulants
Stimulants are drugs which
intensify neural activity
and bodily functions.
Some physical effects of stimulants:
dilated pupils, increased breathing and
heart rate, increased blood sugar,
decreased appetite
Examples of stimulants:
 Caffeine
 Nicotine
 Amphetamines, Methamphetamine
 Cocaine
 Ecstasy
Caffeine
 adds energy
 disrupts sleep for 3-4
hours
 can lead to withdrawal
symptoms if used daily:
 headaches
 irritability
 fatigue
 difficulty
concentrating
 depression
Nicotine
The main
effect of
nicotine use
is
ADDICTION.
Why do people smoke?
 Starting to smoke: invited
by peers, influenced by
culture and media
 Continuing: positively
reinforced by physically
stimulating effects
 Not stopping: after regular
use, smokers have difficulty
stopping because of
withdrawal symptoms such
as insomnia, anxiety,
distractibility, and irritability
Cocaine
 Cocaine blocks reuptake (and thus increases
levels at the synapse of:
 dopamine (feels rewarding).
 serotonin (lifts mood).
 norepinephrine (provides energy).
 Effect on consciousness: Euphoria!!! At
least for 45 minutes…
What happens
next?
 Euphoria crashes
into a state
worse than
before taking the
drug, with
agitation,
depression, and
pain.
 Users develop
tolerance; over
time, withdrawal
symptoms of
cocaine use get
worse, and users
take more just to
feel normal.
 Cycles of
overdose and
withdrawal can
sometimes bring
convulsions,
violence, heart
attack, and
death.
Methamphetamine
 Methamphetamine triggers the sustained release of dopamine,
sometimes leading to eight hours of euphoria and energy.
 What happens next: irritability, insomnia, seizures,
hypertension, violence, depression
 “Meth” addiction can become all-consuming.
1998
2002
Ecstasy/MDMA
(MethyleneDioxyMethAmphetamine)
 Ecstasy is a synthetic stimulant that
increases dopamine and greatly
increases serotonin.
 Effects on consciousness: euphoria,
CNS stimulation, hallucinations, and
artificial feeling of social connectedness
and intimacy
What Happens Next?
 In the short run, regretted behavior, dehydration, overheating, and
high blood pressure.
 Make it past that, and you might have:
 damaged serotonin-producing neurons, causing permanently
depressed mood
 disrupted sleep and circadian rhythm
 impaired memory and slowed thinking
 suppressed immune system
Hallucinogens
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
 LSD and similar drugs interfere with
serotonin transmission.
 This causes hallucinations--images
and other “sensations” that didn’t
come in through the senses.
Marijuana/THC (delta-9TetraHydroCannabinol)
 Marijuana binds with brain
cannabinoid receptors.
 Effect on consciousness:
 amplifies sensations
 disinhibits impulses
 euphoric mood
 lack of ability to sense satiety
Marijuana/THC:
What Happens Next?
 Impaired motor
coordination,
perceptual ability, and
reaction time
 THC accumulates in the
body, increasing the
effects of next use
 Over time, the brain
shrinks in areas
processing memory and
emotion
 Smoke inhalation
damage
Cannabinoid Receptors
Teen Cannabis and IQ
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/14/marijuana-study-teens-pot-iq-dropflawed_n_2473936.html
Meier et al (2012)
Dunedin Longitudinal Study (NZ)
 1037 people born in 1972-73
 IQ measured: age 13 and age 38
 Pot smoking: age 18, 21, 26, 32, 38
RESULT:
 Heavy use < age 18: drop of 8 IQ points
 Heavy defined as: > once a week
 And continued smoking pot heavily in adulthood
Meier et al (2012)
Our finding was that adults who were
long-term dependent on cannabis
and those who used cannabis 4 or
more times per week during the 20
years after adolescence, had lost IQ
points by age 38. Those who lost the
most IQ points were those who had
started their cannabis use youngest,
as teens.
Teen Cannabis and IQ
OOPS…
Criticism? Rogeberg (2013)
Socioeconomic confound?
 Heavy pot smoking  Lower SES
 Schooling raises IQ more for lower SES
 By midlife, that IQ effect wears off. (“age 38”)
 Age 38 IQ decline seen in pothead teens
might be due to that reason.
 Might not be due to pot damaging developing
brain.
Cannabis and Psychosis Link
• Does cannabis use trigger the onset
of psychosis in vulnerable
individuals?
• Or are people with a genetic
predisposition to develop psychosis
more likely to use cannabis than the
population at large (possibly as a
coping mechanism)?
Summary: Desired Effects of Drugs
Summary: Aversive Effects of Drugs
Prevalence of Drug Use in the
North America
Nicotine Use as of 2011:
26 percent of high school
dropouts smoke; 6 percent
of people with graduate
degrees smoke
What influences can lead to
disordered drug use?
What can turn drug use into
substance use disorder?
 Biological factors: substance use disorder
in relatives, thrill-seeking in childhood,
genes related to alcohol sensitivity, and
easily disrupted dopamine reward system
 Psychological factors: seeking
gratification, depression, problems
forming identity, problems assessing risks
and costs
 Social influences: media glorification,
observing peers
Meditation


Meditation = practices that
train attention to heighten
awareness and bring mental
processes under greater
voluntary control
Yoga, Zen, transcendental
meditation (TM)

Wide range of positive effects
(increased compassion,
alertness, blood flow, immune
function, etc)
• but it is unclear how meditation
differs from other systematic
relaxation training procedures
which produce very similar effects.
Other Alterations of Consciousness and Unusual Experiences

Out-of-body experience (OBE) - sense of consciousness
leaving one’s body



Near-death experience (NDE) - OBE reported by people
who have nearly died or thought they were going to die


No scientific evidence to support
May be related to ability to fantasize and to become extraordinarily
absorbed in experiences
NDE-like experiences can be triggered by stimulating the temporal
lobes, lack of oxygen to the brain, and psychedelic and anesthetic
drugs
Déjà vu - feeling of reliving an experience that is new

Theories:
• Small seizures in right temporal lobe
• Dual processing theory – slightly out-of-sync arrival of sensory
info from separate pathways
• Prior unconscious processing of the information
• The present experience resembles an earlier experience
Are
substances
inherently
addictive and
should they
be avoided at
all cost?
Only 10 to 16 percent of
people who try most drugs,
even morphine and cocaine,
become addicted.
Controversies
Related to
Addiction
Is the
“addiction”
concept
applicable to
repeated
behaviors that
do not involve
ingesting
chemicals?
Does
recovery
require
therapy, or
require a 12step group?
In general,
recovery rates do
not seem to differ
much from people
quitting on their
own.
Labeling it this way can be seen as
making excuses for misbehavior
such as gambling or sexual affairs.
However, many of the substance
use disorder criteria are often
met, and there may be a
dopamine-based chemical process
underlying some ‘addictive’
behavior patterns.
Please ignore these last
slides on the topic of
hypnosis– we won’t lecture
on hypnosis. We might do
that during the next chapter
we cover, SensationPerception.
Another Possible State of Consciousness:
HYPNOSIS
Text definition: Hypnosis is a social
interaction in which one person (the
hypnotist) suggests to another (the
subject) that certain perceptions,
feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will
spontaneously occur.
Alternate definition: Hypnosis is
a cooperative social action in
which one person is in a state of
being likely to respond to
suggestions from another person.
 This state has been called
heightened suggestibility as
well as a trance.
 Controversy: does this social
interaction really require an
altered state of consciousness?
Hypnosis
 Mesmer (1770s)
animal magnetism
Inquiry by Gov't: "power of suggestion"
 Scottish Physician (1850s)
does surgery without anaesthetic
introduces word: "hypnosis"
 Neurology: Charcot --> Freud
weak nerves? altered state?
Types of Hypnotic Suggestions
The subject
may be led into
changes in:
perceptions
(“The headache is fading away.”)
behavior
(“Your arm might rise by itself.”)
emotions
(“You are feeling more relaxed and confident.”)
attitudes
(“I get nutrition from food, and get comfort from friends.”)
memory
(“You got lost in a mall as a child.”)
Induction Into Hypnosis
Hypnotic induction, the
inducing of a hypnotic state,
is the process by which a
hypnotist leads someone
into the state of heightened
suggestibility.
The Highly
Hypnotizable
20 Percent
How do some people get so
hypnotized that they can have
A swinging
no reaction to ammonia under
watch and
recitation of the their noses?
words “you are • These people seem to be
getting sleepy”
more easily absorbed in
are not
imaginative activities.
necessary.
• They are able to focus and to
lose themselves in fantasy.
• The hypnotic induction
method may happen to work
just right.
Absorption
 Stable trait, related to “openness”
̶
So intensely focused, you “zone out”
 Best predictor of hypnotizability
 Absorp resembles “flow” states
̶
̶
Context is lost (time and space)
E.g., rock climbing
 Absorp resembles “mystical” states
absorption
Some music reminds me of pictures
or changing color patterns.
I like to watch cloud shapes change
in the sky.
mysticism
I have had an experience in which
was both timeless and spaceless.
I have had an experience in which
all things seemed to be conscious.
Absorption
Openness to experience
Fantasy-proneness, imagination
Curiosity (e.g., novelty, change)
Creativity (e.g., unusual connections)
 Dopamine  exploration (cog & beh)
 Cognitive permeability, e.g.,
Apophenia, synesthesia, awe…
Theories Explaining Hypnosis
Divided Consciousness Theory
Hypnosis is a special state of
dissociated (divided)
consciousness of our dual-track
mind.
Social Influence Theory
Hypnotic subjects may simply
be imaginative people who go
along with the “subject” role
they have agreed to play.
Benefits of
Hypnosis for
Some People:
 blocking awareness
of pain, even enough
for surgery without
anesthesia
 reducing obesity,
anxiety, and
hypertension
 improving
concentration and
performance
What Hypnosis
Cannot Do:
 work when people
refuse to
cooperate
 bestow
‘superhuman’
abilities or
strength
 accurately boost
recall of forgotten
events (it is more
likely to implant
false recall)
Does hypnosis improve accuracy of
eyewitness evidence?
Sheehan et al. (1991)
Video of bank robbery
 1st interview
Half hypnotized.
Half not.
 2nd interview
Suggestion planted: “mask”
 3rd interview
“ Did the robber wear a mask? ”
Leading Cause of Wrongful Conviction?
Eye Witness Misidentification
Hypnosis Beliefs and Psychotherapy
Yapko (1994) Survey of therapists
 869 family therapists (all MAs or PhDs)
 50% believed....
“Hypnosis can be used to recover
memories from as far back as birth.”
 Possible role in malpractice epidemic, 19851990s concerning recovered memory of
abuse.