Polyatomic ions
• Poly = Many
• Atomic = having to do with atoms
• ions = having a charge + or –
Nomenclature
• A System of Naming Compounds
• Compounds are two or more atoms of
different elements bonded together.
• Even though the gases O2, N2, F2, and Cl2
travel in pairs, their names are simply
oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, and chlorine.
What’s in a name?
• When two people use different names for
the same thing, misunderstood words are
apt to happen. The British and Americans
often get confused
trunk (car) boot kerosene paraffin pacifier dummy
band-aid plaster sidewalk pavement eraser rubber cookiebiscuit
Date: 1891
Location: England
Professor: G. J. Stoney
Course: Chemistry 15
Length: 2 days
1. Electric charge is of two types:
Positive and negative
2. Unlike charges attract and
like charges repel.
+
_
+
+
Coil of wire
battery
+
+
compass
_
_
Coil of wire
battery
+
+
compass
Copper Chloride
_
_
If copper atoms are going to the negative side, what
charge do they have? What about the chlorine atoms?
Coil of wire
battery
+
+
compass
Copper Chloride
_
_
Since the atoms wandered towards each side, let’s call them
IONS from the Greek word, ion, meaning wanderer.
Coil of wire
battery
+
+
_
_
compass
+
+
+
+
Copper Chloride
Also,
the positive
side
of a battery
is called
the
Since since
the negative
side of
a battery
is called
the cathode
anode
(way up),
we’ll
go towards
it
(way down),
we’ll
callcall
ionsions
thatthat
go towards
it cations.
anions.
+
anode
_
cathode
+
_
anode
cathode
++ + +
++
++
Copper Chloride CuCl2
Swedish scientist, Arrhenius tried the
same experiment without water.
+
anode
_
cathode
+
anode
Sodium Chloride NaCl
_
cathode
When the sodium chloride melted, it began to
conduct current and a gas formed at the anode
and a gray metal formed on the cathode.
+
anode
_
cathode
+
anode
Sodium Chloride NaCl
_
cathode
This year, 1891, I’d like to introduce a new word. I
want a name for whatever atoms possess that allow
them to carry a charge. I want to call them
electrons.
I picked the word, electron, because the Greek
word for amber is Elektron.
Amber is tree sap from an extinct
tree that has been buried for a
long time and hardened. You can
often see pieces of plant material
and insects like ants or
mosquitoes in amber. Also, our
ancestors found that if you rubbed
amber with fur you get what we
now call static electricity.
The word electricity comes from the Latin word, electricus,
which means that which is produced when amber is
rubbed. The word, electricity was introduced in 1645.
We learned how to make electricity and
learned some of its behavior. We also believed
that it was something separate from matter.
However, now I believe electricity is possible
because atoms have what I’m calling electrons
in them which gets involved when there’s
electricity flowing.
I propose a new quality to be added to atoms.
Atoms have one or more electrons
electron
electron
electron
electron
Mendeleyev did not believe electrons
were part of the atom
Electrons are in “orbit” around the
nucleus.
+
++
Updated view of the structure of the atom.
The atom is no longer considered
indivisible.
However, we are still keeping the
name atom.
One reason it’s not indivisible is
that we can strip off electrons
from atoms using high voltage.
If you take a glass tube and pump out most
of the air and apply high voltage, electrons
will leave the negative side and fly to the
the positive side. We call this stream of
electrons, cathode rays.
_
+
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
Xrays
Polyatomic ions
• Poly = Many
• Atomic = having to do with atoms
• ions = having a charge + or –
How do more than one atom come together?
sulfite
-2
-
-
(Sulfur dioxide) Occurs naturally in the atmosphere and as a pollutant
gas from combustion of fuels with sulfur. Sulfur dioxide is one cause of acid
rain.
It is also used as a bleach, disinfectant and refrigerant. Used as a
preservative in wine for its antibacterial properties, and as a bleaching agent
in flour. Sulfur dioxide may be used to fumigate fruit and vegetables to
extend their shelf life.
sulfite
-2
(Sulfite) Used to sterilize fermentation equipment and food
containers, as well as for its antimicrobial properties. Generally
meat, cereals and dairy products may not be treated with it as it
destroys thiamine (vitamin B1) content. Over exposure to
sulfites in food may cause an asthmatic attack.
1 out 100 people are sensitive to sulfite causing allergic
reactions. Some people have died.
sulfite
-2
sulfate
-2
Sulfuric Acid 2H+ + SO4-2
Calcium sulfate (Gypsum-drywall) (White Sands, NM)
Magnesium Sulfate (Epson salts)
Barium Sulfate (contrast medium for xrays)
Copper sulfate is an algaecide.
hypochlorite
chlorite
chlorate
perchlorate
4-5 million pounds per day Chlorine dioxide for disinfecting
drinking water, bleaching paper pulp, treating foods such as
shrimp, fruits, vegetables, flour.
Sanitizing food processing equipment.
Chlorine dioxide used to sterilize water in water treatment
plants.
Chlorine dioxide was used to fumigate Fed buildings for
anthrax. It was created at the site.
chlorite
chlorate
perchlorate
hypochlorite
Chlorate & perchlorate strong oxidizers
Metallic chlorates/perchlorates turn into salt plus
oxygen.
Fireworks & explosives
Nitrite
Phosphite?
Nitrate
-2
CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3 -> H+ + HCO3-1 -> 2H+ + CO3-2
-
Important in the body to maintain correct pH
in blood.
Not enough breathing and CO2 levels rise
leading to more acidity and condition called
acidosis. Hyperventilation and too much
CO2 being expelled leads to condition of
alkalosis.
This same reaction happens in making
carbonated drinks. Compressed CO2 is
bubbled through water making carbonic acid.
-2
CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3 -> H+ + HCO3-1 -> 2H+ + CO3-2
-
CaCO3 is a common mineral. One form
is calcite. It is often created by marine
life. Coral is mostly CaCO3 (calcium
carbonate) and is used as a calcium
supplement. TUMS is also calcium
carbonate and is promoted as acid
neutralizer and calcium supplement
-
-
Ammonia is created in the body from digestion of proteins and
aminoacids. If there’s an excess of nitrogen, the body converts
it to urea, which is less toxic. Urea is expelled in the urine.
Some babies are born without the enzymes to convert ammonia
to urea, so they develop hyperammonemia, which is fatal or will
cause brain damage.
Ammonia is formed when animal waste is decomposed by
bacteria.
+1
-
-
-
-
-
-
Ammonia added to water will form ammonium
hydroxide (cleaning “ammonia”)
Ammonium nitrate: Fertilizer, explosives
Ammonium chloride: conducts electricity inside
dry-cell batteries. Also used in cough medicines
to hide the taste of bitter tasting medicines.
Acetic
AcetateAcid (vinegar)
-1
-
-
-
When hydrogen proton comes off or reacts with something,
its electron is left behind. This makes the remaining
molecule negatively charged. It then becomes the acetate
ion. The negatively charged acetate ion is then attracted to
anything positive, such as metals that have lost an electron.
Sodium acetate is used for
instant heating pads By
breaking a capsule a seed
crystal of sodium acetate
allows the crystallization of
the supercooled liquid
sodium acetate.
Acetate
-1
-
-
-
Zinc acetate in lozenges to
fight colds.
Calcium acetate is used as a thickener in batters,
butter, puddings, pie fillers. It also is used to
adjust acidity (pH) of foods and to preserve foods.
Ammonium acetate is used in permanent waves
and haircare products.
Cellulose acetate made
from acetic acid and
cellulose (wood fiber)
used to make clear plastic,
fabrics, and movie film
(celluloid)
Acetate
-1
-
-
-
-1
-
Baking soda is Sodium bicarbonate or
NaHCO3. This reacts with acids in the food
to form carbon dioxide gas to get the batter
to rise.
NaHCO3 + H+ -> Na+ + H2O + CO2(gas)
Baking powder has its own acids to help
the reaction to take place.
-
To reduce acidity in the blood, sometimes sodium or
potassium bicarbonate are injected into patients that
have developed diabetes induced acidosis. Other
conditions that cause acidosis may also be treated
by bicarbonates.
phthalate
phthalic acid
diethyl phthalate: Plasticizer: Softens
polyvinyl chloride plaster for chew toys
and for saran wrap. Also used in
cosmetics, insecticides, and food
wrapping. Concern over it leaching into
food.
Tygon tubing. PVC softened with
below ester used for surgical
tubing. Good for contact with
blood and pumps. Also wound
drainage.
Acetate
Sodium acetate Is employed
in diuretic expectorant and
systemic alkalizers, and for
kidney dialysis processes.
Sodium acetate is used for instant heating pads By breaking a capsule
a seed crystal of sodium acetate allows the crystallization of the
supercooled liquid sodium acetate.Think of the thermal pack as a kind
of rechargeable heat battery. In its cool state, the pack holds a liquid
solution of sodium acetate -- a type of salt -- and water. A small metal
disc about the size of a dime floats inside. Snap the disk and the pack
changes within seconds from a clear, cool liquid to a hot, crystalline
solid that can stay warm for hours. To use it again, boil the hard pack
in water for about 10 minutes until it melts and let it cool.
What's going on? Palca explains by beginning at the end.
-
-
-
Cellulose acetate made from
acetic acid and cellulose (wood
fiber) used to make clear plastic,
fabrics, and movie film (celluloid)
Boiling the hard pack melts the crystals and forces the sodium acetate
back into a liquid. In this liquid state, the sodium acetate stores the
heat from the boiling process.
normal circumstances, sodium acetate solution turns back into
- Under
a solid when it cools. But it's possible to keep it in liquid form as long
as it's kept in a smooth pouch with nothing inside to which the sodium
acetate molecules can adhere. This prevents crystals from forming
Calcium
in batters, butter,
andacetate
changingistheused
liquidas
intoa athickener
solid.
puddings, pie fillers. It also is used to adjust acidity (pH)
of foods
and to
Twisting
thepreserve
disk ignitesfoods.
a kind of chain reaction: a single crystal forms
and thenacetate
the rest is
of used
the sodium
acetate rushes
to crystallize.
The
Ammonium
in permanent
waves
and
chemical
energy released as the crystals form is given off as heat.
haircare
products.
Essentially, the pack is a rechargeable battery: Boiling the pack
recharges it by restoring heat to the solution.
Zinc acetate in lozenges to fight colds.
+1
-
Ammonium nitrate: Fertilizer, explosives
Ammonium chloride: conducts electricity inside dry-cell
batteries; also used in cough medicines to hide the taste of bitter
tasting medicines.
-
-
-
-
-
Ammonia added to water will form ammonium hydroxide (cleaning “ammonia”)
Ammonia is created in the body from digestion of proteins and aminoacids. In water,
ammonia pulls off a hydrogen nucleus from water and becomes positively charge. If
there’s an excess of nitrogen, the body converts it to urea, which is less toxic. Urea is
expelled in the urine.
Some babies are born without the enzymes to convert ammonia to urea, so they
develop hyperammonemia, which is fatal or will cause brain damage.
Chlorate & perchlorate strong oxidizers: Metallic chlorates/perchlorates turn into
salt plus oxygen.
perchlorate
chlorite chlorate
hypochlorite
The oxidation level of the chlorine atom in
chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is +4, while in
elemental chlorine (Cl2) the oxidation level
of the chlorine atom is +1.
ClO2, a radical, undergoes
photodecomposition in the stratosphere
where the products of this reaction react
Mineral called
“chlorite” but
there’s no
chlorine in it
S2 not involved?
Formed when
chlorine dioxide
hits water
with ozone.
4-5 million pounds per day Chlorine dioxide for
disenfecting drinking water, bleaching paper pulp,
treating foods such as shrimp, fruits, vegetabls,
flour.
Sanitizing food processing equipment. (USPS)
Chlorine dioxide used to sterilize water in water
treatment plants.Also to bleach paper
Chlorine dioxide was used to fumigate Fed buildings
for anthrax. It was created at the site. The USpostal
Service also show this lewis structure.
One source
showed
resonance of Cl
double bond to
Oxygen with
one free
electron
(another source
said this is
wrong)
ClO2, a radical,
undergoes
photodecomposi
tion in the
stratosphere
where the
products of this
reaction react
with ozone.
One source said oxygen was two
radicals(2 unpaired electrons),
which is why is can support
combustion so well and that the
magnetic resonance show that it is
a triplet.
Historically it was considered one of the four alchemical "spirits". In
modern times it found use as an electrolyte for batteries, and as cough
medicine flavoring to hide the taste of some medicines, and as a fluid
retentative agent. Sal Ammoniac was named after it was observed in
the Temple of Zeus-Ammon in Egypt, it's name means "salt of
Ammon". It was the white crystaline substance that remained on the
ceiling and walls after camel dung was burned. The modern name
"ammonium" comes from Sal Ammoniac.
In classical times, sal ammoniac was discovered by accident through burning the dung of
camels in the temple of Jupiter Ammon at Siwa oasis in Libya.
"Ammonia" is a genus name in the Foraminifera (marine planktonic protozoa with a
calcium carbonate shell, whose remains have contributed to limestone and chalk
deposits), and "ammonites" are an extinct group of cephalopod whose fossil shells are
abundant from the Paleozoic. In both cases, the shell is formed of a series of chambers,
arranged in a spiral, and the name is given for the "Horn of Ammon", the ram's horns that
the god by whose temple the ammoniacal camel dung was to be found (see above) was
supposed to have had.
In the Bible it is related that, Jephthah smote the Ammonites, with the help of God, who
accepted Jepthah's daughter, as a burned offering, as compensation (Book of Judges).
Presumably, these Ammonites (descendants of the offspring of Lot and his daughter)
were followers of the same horny deity.
Relatively stable, persistent free radical compounds include Fremys salt
(Potassium nitrosodisulfonate, (KSO3)2NO·)and nitroxides, (general
formula R2NO·).
Free radicals play an important role in a number of biological processes, some of which are necessary for
life. However, because of their reactivity, these same free radicals can participate in unwanted side
reactions resulting in cell damage. Some forms of cancer are the result of reactions between free radicals
and DNA, resulting in cancerous cell mutations. Some of the symptoms of ageing such as atherosclerosis
are also attributed to free-radical induced oxidation of many of the chemicals making up the body. In
addition free radicals contribute to alcohol-induced liver damage, perhaps more than alcohol itself.
Radicals in cigarette smoke have been implicated in inactivation of an antiprotease in the lung, which
leads to the development of emphysema.
Because free radicals are necessary for life, the body has a number of mechanisms to minimize free
radical induced damage and to repair damage which does occur. Antioxidants play a key role in these
defense mechanisms
Molecular Orbital
Theory says why? if I
could understand it.
Nitroxide-a stable
free radical
Molecular Orbital
Theory says why? if I
could understand it.
http://www.chemsoc.org/exemplarchem/entries/2001/anderson/preservatives.htm
(Sulfur dioxide) Occurs naturally in the atmosphere and as a pollutant gas
from combustion processes, sulphur dioxide is implicated in formation of acid
rain and has a choking odour. It is commercially produced either by
combustion of sulphur, hydrogen sulphide or gypsum. Most industrially
produced sulphur dioxide is used in the production of sulphuric acid, but it is
also used as a bleach, disinfectant and refrigerant. Used as a preservative in
wine for its antibacterial properties, and as a bleaching agent in flour. Sulphur
dioxide may be used to fumigate fruit and vegetables to extend their shelf life.
Sulphur dioxide may not be used for foods containing a significant amount of
thiamine, as this is destroyed by the gas.
The sodium salt of sulphurous acid. Used to sterilize fermentation equipment and food
containers, as well as for its antimicrobial properties. Generally meat, cereals and dair
products may not be treated with E221 as it destroys thiamine content. Over exposure
sulfites in food may cause an asthmatic attack.
Today, ammonium perchlorate and the other perchlorate salts are used in a wide
range of applications, including pyrotechnics and fireworks, blasting agents,
matches, lubricating oils, textile dye fixing, nuclear reactors, tanning and
finishing leather, rubber manufacturing, electroplating, aluminum refinishing,
automobile air bag inflators, paint and enamel production, and pharmaceuticals
(3). The most common use for ammonium perchlorate is in explosives and
rocket propellant. Because it has a limited shelf life, the ammonium perchlorate
used in the nation's rocket and missile supply must occasionally be replaced. As
a result, large amounts of the compound are periodically disposed
perchlorate. Because of its easy solubility it gets into the ground
water easily as is a concern for toxicity of water.
Bisulfite ion? ^
SO2 + H2O + O2 >
Na metabisulfite
Sulfates (tetrahedral to 4 oxygens)
Magnesium Sulfate is Epsom salts
Sulfuric acid
Copper sulfate is a algeacide
Most sulfates are soluble except for CaSO4, SrSO4, and BaSO4
BaSO4 used in xrays as contrasting medium.
-
SO2 + H2O + O2 > sulfuric acid
This also shows the anti-oxidant
nature of SO2
SO2 dissolves in water makes
sulfurous acid(sulfite + 2H+)
Chromate (chromium color)
•
•
•
•
Lead chromate was used in yellow, red, and orange paints. But was
outlawed for use in homes because of lead poisoning as children chewed
on peeling paint.
chromate CrO4 2- yellow
dichromate Cr2O72- orange
Cr+3 is green
Potassium dichromate is a powerful oxidizing agent and is the preferred
compound for cleaning laboratory glassware of any possible organics.
http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/hazardous/sacnitrate.html
It's found naturally in foods like spinach, lettuce, beets, and carrots.
Where nitrate comes from
It is often difficult to pinpoint where the nitrate in drinking water comes from
because there are so many possibilities. The source of nitrate and nitrogen may be
from runoff or seepage from fertilized soil, municipal or industrial wastewater,
landfills, animal feed lots, septic systems, urban drainage, or decaying plant
material.
Health concerns
High nitrate levels in drinking water can pose a special risk for infants. When an
infant takes in nitrate, it's converted into another compound called nitrite. Nitrite
causes the hemoglobin in the blood to change into a substance called
methemoglobin. This reduces the ability of the blood to carry oxygen, causing a
condition known as methemoglobinemia, or "blue baby syndrome."
When this happens, the skin turns blue -- similar in color to the blood vessels under
the skin. Medical treatment should be sought immediately for this condition. Prompt
medical attention usually results in a quick recovery. In severe cases, nitrate
poisoning can be fatal.
Why are infants more susceptible?
Adults can take in large amounts of nitrate without any harm. Infants are more
susceptible partly because their stomach juices are less acidic. That promotes the
growth of a certain kind of bacteria which converts the nitrate into nitrite.
Infants under six months of age are the most susceptible. Older children are rarely
affected because of developmental changes that occur as they grow. Women who
Phosphate + Phosphite
Phosphorus (light bringer: glows in dark)
phosphorus was first isolated in 1669 by Hennig Brand, a German physician and alchemist,
by boiling, filtering and otherwise processing as many as 60 buckets of urine. Thankfully,
phosphorus is now primarily obtained from phosphate rock (Ca3(PO4)2).
-3
-
-
-
-
-
-3
-
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is
used in soft drinks and to
create many phosphate
compounds, such as triple
superphosphate fertilizer
(Ca(H2PO4)2·H2O). Trisodium
phosphate (Na3PO4) is used as
a cleaning agent and as a
water softener. Calcium
phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2) is used
to make china and in the
production of baking powder.
Some phosphorus compounds
glow in the dark or emit light in
response to absorbing radiation
and are used in fluorescent
light bulbs and television sets.
Phosphorous acid use in agroculture, antiscale and corrosion
Trialkyl phosphates (RO)3P for plasticizers, flame retardants,
antifoams, Diakly hydrogen phosphates used in lubricants
Phosphate + Phosphite
an effervescent drink of carbonated water with a small amount of
phosphoric acid flavored with fruit syrup
adenosine triphosphate (commonly called ATP) is the "molecular currency"
of intracellular energy transfers. It is a means of storing and transporting
chemical energy within the cell and a precursor for RNA formation.
In a biochemical setting, a free phosphate ion in solution is called inorganic
phosphate, to distinguish it from phosphates bound in the form of ATP,
In living systems, phosphate ions can also be created by the hydrolysis of a
larger ion called pyrophosphate, which has the structure P2O74-, and is denoted
PPi.
•P2O74- + H2O → 2HPO42-
•In ecological terms, phosphate is often a limiting reagent in many
environments--the availability of phosphate governs the rate of growth of many
organisms. Introduction of non-naturally occurring levels of phosphate to those
environments causes an ecological disequilibrium, leading to booms in the
population of some organisms and subsequent busts in the populations of
others deprived of other nutrients or essential elements by the rapid growth
and consumption by the booming population.
• White phosphorus glows in dark when exposed to the air. Instantly
flammable, and is poisonous. red phosphorus is less reactive and
not poisonous.
• Phosphate rocks are heated and vaporized. The condensate is
white phosphorus.
• In order to glow, a product must contain a phosphor. A phosphor is
a substance made up of specialized particles that radiate (send out)
visible light after being energized. Phosphors can be charged in
many different ways. Light, special types of radiation, and even
electron beams, can energize different phosphors. What you most
commonly see in glow-in-the-dark toys is either a substance called
zinc sulfide or strontium aluminates. These two substances can be
charged by light radiation and have a long persistence. The
persistence of a phosphor is the length of time it stays aglow. The
major difference between these two substances is that strontium
aluminates glow for a longer period of time than zink sulfide.
• Phosphates are utilized in the making of special glasses that are
used for sodium lamps.
• Bone-ash, calcium phosphate, is used in the production of fine china
and to make mono-calcium phosphate which is employed in baking
powder.
• This element is also an important component in steel production, in
the making of phosphor bronze, and in many other related products.
• Trisodium phosphate is widely used in cleaning agents to soften
water and for preventing pipe/boiler tube corrosion.
• White phosphorus is used in military incendiaries, smoke pots,
smoke bombs and tracer bullets.
• Miscellaneous uses; used in the making of safety matches,
pyrotechnics, pesticides, toothpaste, detergentsetc.
Phosphates
•
The experimental alum-dosing facility for Fish Lake was not operated in
2001 after contributing last year to the best average water clarity (6.8
feet) in Fish Lake since 1982. In 2001, the City collected field data to
determine additional effects of the operation while investigating short- and
long-term operation and maintenance strategies. The facility injects alum,
a compound that inactivates phosphorus, into the major stormwater trunk
to the lake. Phosphorus is the leading nutrient contributing to algae
growth in lakes.
Phosphate is component of teeth and bones. apatite is Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl
About a 100 different minerals contain phosphate. One is turquoise.
CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8*5(H2O), Hydrated Copper Aluminum Phosphate
The Shocking History of Phosphorus tells the human stories to be found in
the history of this element in the 300 years since its discovery. The book
includes tales of the alchemist who first found it, the doctors who prescribed
it as a cure for most ailments including male impotence, the famous matchgirls and their strike, the Salvation Army's struggle to ban it, Operation
Gomorrah which reduced its birthplace to rubble, the industry which made it
and the fishy end it came to, the use of phosphorus to make food additives
and detergents and the pollution they caused, spectacular accidents, the
role assigned it by Nature, and finally its release as phosphane and
diphosphane gases as the possible explanation of various supernatural
phenomena.
Arsenate
•
Arsenic is chemically very similar to its predecessor phosphorus, so much
so that it will partly substitute for it in biochemical reactions and is thus
poisonous. It is in the same group as phosphorus.
-3
-
-
-
-
-
-3
-
Metal salts of arsenate are used as insecticides
Calcium, lead, or copper arsenate. Potassium or sodium arsenite
arsenate
•
•
An arsenic atom will readily combine with four oxygen atoms to form the arsenate
molecule. The arsenate molecule is a chemical look-alike to the phosphate molecule,
similarly formed from phosphorous and oxygen. Phosphorous is an important
element for living organisms. It forms nerve tissue, bones and teeth. Also, it makes up
a part of the membrane tissue that surrounds living cells and transports the energy
that fuels muscle contraction.
The cells recognize the shape of the phosphate molecule and readily absorb it.
Unfortunately, the shape of arsenate is so nearly identical that cells do not distinguish
between arsenate and phosphate. Thus, if substantial concentrations of arsenate are
provided to the body, the damaging arsenate is taken into cells instead of the
phosphate which the cells need. This substitution of the bad for the good perhaps
explains why arsenic poisoning can retain its latency over the years, especially in
children since their bodies are rapidly growing.
Arsenate (arsenic: yellow pigment)
•
•
•
•
•
Roger Smith, Professor of Pharmacology and Toxicology Emeritus, Dartmouth Medical School,
has stated that natural arsenic contamination of drinking water has been a problem in wells in
Bangladesh and New Hampshire. The Bangladesh well poisoning is a particularly difficult
problem: millions of people take their drinking water from wells that were drilled through arsenicbearing rock layers. Chronic low level arsenic poisoning as in Bangladesh results in the victim
developing cancer.
There is a theory that Napoleon Bonaparte suffered from arsenic poisoning, and samples of his
hair did show high levels of the element. This, however, does not imply deliberate poisoning by
Napoleon's enemies: Copper arsenate has been used as a pigment in some wallpapers, and
microbiological liberation of the arsenic into the immediate environment would be possible. The
case is equivocal, in the absence of clearly authenticated samples of the wallpaper.
Even without contaminated wallpaper, there are many other routes by which he could have picked
up arsenic: arsenic was used medicinally for centuries and, in fact, was used extensively to treat
syphilis before penicillin was introduced; it was replaced for treating other conditions by sulfa
drugs and then by antibiotics. Arsenic was an ingredient in many tonics (or "patent medicines"),
just as coca (unrefined cocaine) was an ingredient in Coca-Cola when it was introduced.
A later case of arsenic poisoning is that of Claire Booth Luce, the American ambassador to Italy in
the years just following World War II; she suffered an increasing variety of physical and
psychological symptoms until arsenic poisoning was diagnosed, and its source traced to the old,
arsenic-laden flaking paint on the ceiling of her bedroom. Another source
(http://www.dartmouth.edu/~toxmetal/TXSHas.shtml) explains her poisoning as resulting from
eating food contaminated by flaking of the ceiling of the embassy dining room. She did not die
from her poisoning.
(chemotherapy) Arsenic trioxide has been used in hematology to treat patients with acute
promyelocytic leukemia that are resistant to ATRA treatment
Cyanide
Hydrogen cyanide gas
-
-1
-
Gas chambers used a pesticide called Zyklon B, which
decomposed to HCN. First used to delouse and for
Typhus.
Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3 This is Prussian blue
(German uniforms.
printing inks, paints, typewriter ribbons, and in carbon paper.
Prussian (PRUSH-en) blue is used to treat thallium poisoning and
radiocesium poisoning. It works by combining with thallium and radiocesium
in the intestines. The combination is then removed from the body through
the stools. By removing the thallium or radiocesium, the medicine lessens
damage to your body's organs and tissues.
Potassium ferrocyanide (K4Fe(CN)6·3H2O), also known as yellow
prussiate of potash, is a coordination compound forming lemon-yellow
monoclinic crystals at room temperature and decomposing at its boiling
point. It is insoluble in alcohol but a litre of water can dissolve just under
300g of the crystals, and the solution can be reduced with acid to release
cyanide gas. The resulting hydrogen cyanide (HCN) boils at 26C and, being
lighter than air, quickly evaporates clear of the release point.
On February 20, 2002 four Moroccans were arrested while in possession
detailed maps of the US embassy in Rome, the Rome water supply
network, and four kilograms of potassium ferrocyanide
• Certain rare plants containing cyanide include apricot pits and a type of
potato called cassava. The supposed cancer-fighting substance called
laetrile (made from apricot pits) used to be sold to desperate cancer
patients by unscrupulous individuals. Ironically, laetrile, in addition to
being useless against cancer, can also lead to cyanide poisoning.
Fortunately, only chronic or massive ingestion of any of these plants can
lead to serious poisoning.
•
•
Laetrile and bitter almond have been associated with serious toxicity and are considered to
be unsafe because of their potential to cause cyanide poisoning. Symptoms of cyanide
poisoning in people who used laetrile have included headache, dilated pupils, seizures,
muscle spasms, difficulty breathing, metabolic abnormalities, shock, coma and death. Other
adverse effects from high doses of bitter almond or laetrile include dizziness, confusion,
drooping of the eyelids, muscle weakness, nausea, vomiting and rare types of anemia and
other blood cell disorders. Drowsiness or sedation may occur. Use caution if you are driving
or operating heavy machinery.
Prunus species, including, apricots, cherries, almonds, and peaches, as well as apples. All of
these seeds and pits contain amygdalin. You may have heard of amygdalin as a component
of Laetrile, an "alternative" cancer treatment of no proven value that may be associated with
cyanide poisoning. This harmless chemical lies inside the seed, but when the seed is
moistened and crushed, it can be converted by bacteria in the intestinal tract or by an
enzyme within the seed into cyanide.
•
Cassava is the third-most important food source in tropical countries, but it has one major problem: The roots
and leaves of poorly processed cassava plants contain a substance that, when eaten, can trigger the
production of cyanide.
That’s a serious problem for the 500 million people who rely on cassava as their main source of calories,
among them subsistence farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa, said Richard Sayre, a professor of plant biology at
Ohio State University. He and his colleague Dimuth Siritunga, a postdoctoral researcher in plant biology at the
university, have created cyanogen-free cassava plants. A cyanogen is a substance that induces cyanide
production.
Their study appeared in a recent issue of the journal Planta.
Cassava is a hardy plant – it can remain in the ground for up to two years and needs relatively little water to
survive. It’s the key source of carbohydrates for subsistence farmers in Africa. But an unprocessed cassava
plant contains potentially toxic levels of a cyanogen called linamarin.
The proper processing of cassava – drying, soaking in water, rinsing or baking – effectively reduces cassava’s
linamarin content. But, said Sayre, shortcut processing techniques, which are frequently used during famines,
can yield toxic food products.
“In Africa, improperly processed cassava is a major problem. It’s associated with a number of cyanide-related
health disorders, particularly among people who are already malnourished.”
Chronic, low-level cyanide exposure is associated with the development of goiter and with tropical ataxic
neuropathy, a nerve-damaging disorder that renders a person unsteady and uncoordinated. Severe cyanide
poisoning, particularly during famines, is associated with outbreaks of a debilitating, irreversible paralytic
disorder called Konzo and, in some cases, death. The incidence of Konzo and tropical ataxic neuropathy can
be as high as 3 percent in some areas.
Ingested cyanide is converted to thiocyanate in the body, thus urinary thiocyanate gives a
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Bradbury, 1999b) for determination of thiocyanate in urine, which was successfully trialled in
Mozambique in October 1999 (Ernesto et al. 2002a). There is a stepwise procedure Protocol D1
for the use of this kit. These kits are available free of charge to health workers and
agriculturalists in developing countries.
Oxalate
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•
•
•
•
Oxalic acid occurs naturally in quite a large number of plants. The human body also synthesizes
oxalic acid from ascorbic acid (Vitamin C). Oxalic acid may combine with calcium, iron, sodium,
magnesium, or potassium to form less soluble salts known as oxalates. Oxalates also occur
naturally in plants.
Since oxalic acid binds with important nutrients, making them inaccessible to the body, regular
consumption of large amounts of foods high in oxalic acid over a period of weeks to months may
result in nutrient deficiencies, most notably of calcium.
Oxalic acid is a strong acid, and is irritating to tissue all by itself. Extremely high doses are fatal.
Oxalates, on the other hand, form tiny little insoluble crystals with sharp edges, which are also
irritating to tissue. So, high levels of oxalic acid/oxalates in the diet lead to irritation of the digestive
system, and particularly of the stomach and kidneys. They may also contribute to the formation of
kidney stones (the most common form of kidney stone is composed of calcium oxalate).
Foods containing these chemicals may be consumed in moderation. However, if you suffer
from kidney disease, kidney stones, rheumatoid arthritis, or gout, it is usually recommended that
you avoid foods that are high in oxalates or oxalic acid. Foods generally found on the list include:
chocolate, cocoa, coffee, most berries (especially strawberries and cranberries), most nuts
(especially peanuts), beans, beets, bell peppers, black pepper, parsley, rhubarb, spinach, swiss
chard, summer squash, sweet potatoes, and tea.
Plant foods with high concentrations of oxalic acid (over 200 ppm) include (but are not limited
to): lamb's-quarter, buckwheat, star fruit, black pepper, purslane, poppy seeds, rhubarb, tea,
spinach, plantains, cocoa and chocolate, ginger, almonds, cashews, garden sorrel, mustard
greens, bell peppers, sweet potatoes, soybeans, tomatillos, beets and beet greens, oats,
pumpkin, cabbage, green beans, mango, eggplant, tomatoes, lentils, and parsnips.
•
•
•
•
Dieffenbachia is a genus of tropical monocots with patterned leaves, also
called dumb cane. Some members of this genus are grown as
houseplants.
Their sap is thick and contains huge quantities of needle-shaped calcium
oxalate crystals. When chewed or even just touched, the sap causes
swelling and a burning sensation, and a temporary inability to speak. This is
why it is called dumb cane. It can cause death if the swelling blocks the
airway.
Slaves were sometimes punished by having dieffenbachia put into their
mouths.
If you have this plant in your house or yard, wash your hands after handling
it.