Media Influence
‘One should be cautious in adopting a new kind
of poetry or music, for this endangers the
whole system…… lawlessness creep in there
unawares’. – Plato, The Republic
What is Media Influence?
What song takes you back to that special occasion with that
special person?
Which movie seems to give voice to your very soul? Which
television show MUST you watch? As we go in search of the role
that mass media plays in our culture, we will also be on an
individual mission because all of us have spent so many hours,
so many years interacting with the mass media. In fact, we
would not be the person we are if not for the media. The media
has done more than just entertain us during those countless
hours of driving with the radio turned on, or listening to CDs,
or watching a movie or watching television. We have also been
persuaded.
The media has given us thousands, probably millions of memory
bytes; however, these are not stored in computers but in our
brains. We recall them, as needed, to interpret the perceptions
we are receiving at a given moment. Simply put, our brains are
a library of songs, books, movies, television shows, and
advertisements provided by the mass media, as well as by
memories of church, parents, personal experiences, and friends.
Considering the importance of the mass media on us individually
and on our culture, you would think media theorists would have
Fortunately, human responses generally have
similarities with groups of other humans,
permitting those of us who study mass
media to have an educated clue as to what
is going on when people consume media.
Before you think that this clue is really
precise and insightful, you should be
aware that not everyone who studies mass
media comes up with the same answers.
Different answers and conclusions are
reached partly because scholars ask
different questions, and partly because
they do not agree theoretically on how
media works on either individuals or on
society.
The benefit created by this scholarly disagreement is that we can
look at media impacts from many different perspectives. The
drawback is that each perspective only turns on a narrow beam
of light seeking to illuminate a very big room. There will be
no point where we turn on the switch and everything becomes
clear.
To understand Media influence we will be studying Communication
Models and Theories. We can best understand these if we can
"deconstruct the text,“ as in the media texts which “best”
demonstrate that theory.
And then see how it related or considered the “best” example to
that Communication theory and the research behind it.
Once we have a working knowledge of the communicative processes
involved with mass media, we can shift gears and focus on the
audience. For this, we will be looking from a theorist point
of view at consumer behaviour, advertising, psychology,
sociology, anthropology, and educational psychology. Each of
these areas will provide insight into how audience groups
respond to the mass messages.
From these theoretical beginnings, we will be able to bring
media and cultural issues into focus by looking and finding
the answers to the questions being raised. We will no
longer have to settle for "Media affects some of the people
some of the time." We can isolate factors that will
influence media impacts. We will use the theory to come to
terms with media issues that are shaping our culture
because we will have a way of discussing media impact on
society and on groups.
Continuing this line of thought brings us to the focus of the
book: mass media is persuasion. Usually when media and
persuasion are used together, people are referring to
either subliminal persuasion or propaganda.
Neither accurately describes the persuasive impact of the
media because both are built on the premise that what the
viewer sees the viewer accepts. If this were true,
McDonald's could not make enough cheeseburgers or Coca-Cola
bottle enough Coke because the audience would be responding
to every advertisement by eating another burger and
drinking another Coke. Instead, people cognitively process
the information tossed at them by the media.
Now consider how much television you have
watched, how many movies you have seen,
how much radio you have listened to, how
many printed pages you have read.
You have spent seven to ten hours a day
since you were born taking media
information into your brain and storing
it for interpretation of future events.
Now THAT is persuasion
Everything you think about, everything
that you do, every decision you make for
the rest of your life will be influenced
by the subtle methods of the media
QUESTIONS TO THINK ABOUT
What Affects the Sender?
What Affects the Message?
Is anyone really listening? (The filter buster)
What Affects the Receiver?
The key factors in this process are:
(A.) What is the point of the communication?
(B.) People think in either words or pictures.
(C.) Once the receiver clearly conceives of what needs to be said and how that thought should be expressed
in signs or symbols, these thoughts have to be adapted to the intended or targeted audience.
What is the point of the communication? If the point is not clear to the sender, then the receiver is unlikely to
stumble upon the meaning the sender was unable to express. Therefore, the first step for the sender is to
organize thinking, developing a concept that sums up the sender's purpose for the communication.
Before deciding on a product ad campaign, advertisers may need to take into account the marketing mix and
business objectives of the company, of which advertising is just a part. Just like the person going on a first
date, the question may be what image does the sender want to project? Both represent an attempt to
figure out the concept, the over all impression that the sender is trying to create.
Media Influence has A LOT of information to remember.
Here is the break down:
The Communication Models/TheoriesWho created the Models & Theories and “evidence” of each
The Audience –
(the nature and extent of which the audience is influenced)
The Research –
What type of research was used to measure the influence and how good
the research is/was
The Positive and Negatives of Media InfluenceLooking at case studies. We focus on TAC/Smoking Campaigns; but also
look into Bobo Doll and Violent video games.
The Regulation –
How do we control the media and it’s influence.
** This covers stuff you did in year 11
Knowledge and Skills YOU need to
show in your MI SAC & Exam
Main points:
•
Need to understand media language!
•
Evidence/research/case studies/expert opinions/ audiences/regulation of media content
•
Strengths and weaknesses of theories, evidence and case studies. Issues with
•
Assessing and evaluating media influence and audience.
•
Ability to talk about a RANGE OF TEXTS.
Knowledge and skills:
•
A range of media texts
•
Communication theories
•
Theories of audience
•
Understanding and evaluation of arguments and evidence - positive and negative.
•
Arguments and evidence surrounding the proposition of the media text.
•
Arguments and evidence surrounding the regulation of media content.
•
A range of media texts
Forms we’ll be looking at:
•
TV, film, radio, internet, computer games etc.
Cultural Effects and Reception theories
(from Media 2 pg 69)
Communication theories are ideas that have been
devised to help us understand the possible
effects of the media on audiences.
It is important to remember that not one model or
theory is perceived as ‘correct’.
The purpose of studying communication theories is
to use these theories as a ‘lens’ through which to
study the impact and influence of the media on
specific audiences.
What is the difference between
Communication Models & Theories
So often these terms are used interchangeably but for the
record:
• A theory is a set of related generalisations
suggesting new observations for experimental
testing.
• A model is a theoretical and simplified
representation, it is often useful to illustrate a
theory.
Communication Models
So we must understand that communication theories, modes and research come out
of one of three different models that describe the relationship between the media
and society.
• The Political Economy Model holds that the media are simply part of an
economic system where power and control is held in political and
economic institutions. Under this model the media transmits the message
these institutions determine.
• The Effects Model holds that media forms and content have strong effects
on individuals and society. This model sees the media as a powerful agent
of change.
• The Cultural Model holds that it is culture which includes the political
economy and the media that explains the individuals’ relationship with
the media. The media serves as the communicative space within which
cultures and other forces in society can interact.
Modes of communication
(By the audience to media)
Active
(Can turn off)
Passive
(Zombie like)
Communications Theories
Some Media experts claim that communication theories fall into two
categories.
Cultural Effects Theories suggest that the media as a whole is a
powerful agent and that audiences are passive. These theories ask
us to question what the media do to people.
Reception Theories are concerned with what people do with the
media. They suggest the audience are more active and the media is
as a whole is to be used by the audiences.
However it is good to note BOTH theories do believe that media texts
are open to individual interpretation and that audience are able to
distinguish between the media and reality.
Cultural effects theories include:
• Hypodermic/Bullet Theory
• Agenda Setting Function Theory
Reception theories include:
• Uses and Gratification Theory
• Reinforcement Theory
• Audience Reception Theory
• Semiotic Constructivism Theory
The Post Modern Theory belongs to neither.
A break down of modes of
communication by the theories.
Media is
Powerful
Hypodermic/
Bullet
Theory
Media has
NO power
Neutral
Agenda
Setting
Function
Theory
Reinforcement
Theory
Post Modern
Theory
Uses and
Gratification
Theory
Cause and effect on audiences by the media
– the two extremes of the Communication
theories.
Hypodermic Bullet Theory
Cause
Cause
Effect
Uses and Gratification Theory
No Effect
Hypodermic/ Bullet Theory
Sometimes called the silver bullet theory or linear, this simplistic
explanation of the communication process holds that the audiences are
passive and are directly affected by the media messages they consume.
Being one of the earliest communication models, this theory is easy to understand and
this very simplicity makes it appealing to those who seek an explanation for what
may be inexplicable.
This theory suggests that media texts are closed, meaning no other interpretation
other than the original undiluted message can be made.
But some obvious questions to ask when looking at what this theory suggests is:
• Do children really jump off the roof thinking they can fly?
• Will teenagers copy what they see in the movies?
Hypodermic theory was not tested but was based on anecdotal observations and
speculation.
Examples of Hypodermic/Bullet
Theory
Examples of how the bullet theory is supposed to work perhaps is the
most famous example is Orson Welles’ Mercury Theatre company
production of the War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells.
In his radio adaption Welles chose to set the play as a news broadcast
in which Martians had invaded New Jersey. It was later estimated
that “about 20 percent of those listening to all or part of the
broadcast exhibited hysterical panic reactions”. “About 25 percent
of the listeners who had become frightened quickly concluded that
they were listening to a radio drama because of the time distortion
and other internal inconsistencies of the broadcast”.
‘Propaganda is the art of persuasion’
• Lein Reifenstein’s Nazi Film ‘Triumph of the Will’.
Bullet Theory (Hypodermic Needle)
Developed 1920’s-1940’s
Frankfurt School
• Frankfurt school left Germany and went to
USA and witnessed War of the Worlds
broadcast by Orson Welles. (1938)
• No real testing of this theory, based on
observation and speculation.
• Theory is now dead - completely disproved.
However, still used in popular media by who?
Criticisms of the Bullet Theory.
Clearly a theory as simple as the bullet or hypodermic theory is as appealing in its
simplicity as it is illogical in practice. Not everyone receives and understands
messages in exactly the same way it was sent to them.
For this model, this means that the text is closed and that no meaning other than the original
intended meaning can be made.
•
Whilst it does not stand to modern scrutiny, we all revert to using such thinking from time to
time, usually to explain or prevent an unpleasant event.
For example:
• The motivation for mass murder is almost impossible for most people to comprehend. Was
the killer mad or bad? What triggered the event?
‘The media made him do it!’ is a convenient and logical explanation for the inexplicable.
•
It was clear in the 1930’s as it is today that most people do not copy everything they see in
the media or believe every media message. The public is smarter than that, their belief in the
authenticity of media messages was clearly influenced by other factors.
Agenda Setting Function Theory
The agenda setting function theory holds that the function of the media is not to tell
audiences what to think but what to think about and how to think about it.
This theory was developed at a time when media researchers were questioning the
limited effects models such as Uses and Gratifications and were dissatisfied with
the extent of the power it attributed to audiences.
This theory has two levels:
• The media tells audiences which issues are important
• The media then suggests to audiences how they might think about an issue and
which aspects of it are more important than others.
Although not as inflexible as the Hypodermic/Bullet theory, the Agenda Setting
Function Theory suggests that audiences are still passive and that media texts are
closed.
•
Few scholars such as Stuart Hall and Raymond Williams proposed that although
the media is not able to dictate to audiences ‘what to think’, it can dictate ‘what
to think about’.
Examples of Agenda Setting Function
Theory
Examples of ASFT can be seen in times of war and
conflict, when news reporting is usually aligned with
one side and presents that view point in a positive
light.
An example of this is the documentary “Outfoxed” –
which sheds light on the Fox network (in the US)
reporting during coverage of Sept 11 and the Iraq War.
This approach is known as ‘gatekeeping’.
According to the ASFT, gatekeeping sets the agenda for
our political support.
Agenda Setting Function
Developed 1970’s
Birmingham School - Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall
4 Levels of reading dependant on both text and audience:
– 1st - Dominant Preferred - audience receive intended message
– 2nd - Oppositional - audiences views stop or block intended message
– 3rd - Negotiated - audience see both sides (intended & oppositional) &
debate within themselves
– 4th - Aberrant - Audience don’t understand - no message received
Criticisms of the Agenda Setting
Function Theory
Agenda Setting is a strong theory which is easy to understand but the extent
of it’s effects are surprisingly difficult to prove.
This is because research must correlate media effects research with content
research and the research must be conducted over time in order to
determine any casual effect.
Whilst agenda setting is commonly held to be important in the coverage of
matters of public policy and government, is it a useful concept when
applied to a popular media that is dominated by commercialism and
entertainment? (such as say Channel 10?)
For more on ASFT:
• www.unc.edu/courses/2000fall/jomc245-001/nickel_critique_1.html
• www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/media/agdet.html
Post Modern/Semiotic Theories
Developed 1980’s
French Post Structuralists- Jacques Derrida, Roland Barthes
We have already briefly covered Semiotics, a method of text analysis which deals with the relationship
between a text and the culture that produces or consumes it.
•
Revolutionary stance to question the questions
•
There are multiple answers to any question
•
There is no truth. Truth varies according to time and place
•
All texts are open
•
Audience is active - even a single person’s reading changes over time
By studying signs, semiotics examines the nature of meaning the contexts of media form, production, message
and consumption.
Semiotics holds that media texts are not reflections of the world but constructions of it.
In Semiotic Theories the audience is active and the text meanings are somehow inherent (inbuilt) and open.
This means that when an audience interprets a text, it understands certain signs or codes in the text depending
on the audiences culture and society at the time.
The audience understands the meaning of these constructions through a shared ideology (beliefs/philosophy),
that is the system of embedded values and beliefs under which most people live.
Example of Post Modern/Semiotic
Theories
An example would be horror films , depending on the codes in the text, the film will
be constructed in a certain way so as to get a particular response from the
audience.
As said before, we have already talked about Semiotics and thus the semiotic theories
for media influence are very similar.
The audience must understand the codes and conventions of the text, but obviously
people from different backgrounds, race, religion, society, socio economics read
these differently.
For example the colour ‘white’ is a symbol of purity and is traditionally worn by brides
at weddings in Western Culture. However in some Eastern cultures white is a
symbol of mourning.
Also: The anti-smoking campaign/message in recent years has been very successful in
Australia, US, UK and Asia,
however all have been shot and packaged very differently to suit the society and
culture they are aimed at.
BUT! The Anti smoking campaign ITSELF is not an example of SEMIOTIC THEORIES (it
comes under Reinforcement theories)
Criticisms of Post Modern/Semiotic
Theories
In this understanding of the way the media works on
active audiences, semiotic codes are used to signify
what type of text the audience is watching.
The study into the way in which a targeted audience
‘receives’ the text is similar in some ways to the Uses
and Gratification theory as it involves qualitative
research involving participant observation and
interviews which leads to concentrating not so much
on the text itself but on the role of the audience.
Reinforcement Theory
Developed late 1960’s by Joseph Klapper
Have you ever yelled at the TV whenever something upsets you? You may have been using the
television to reinforce your understanding of how the world should be.
•
In the first half of the 20th century media research had the two extremes Hypodermic/Bullet and
Uses and Gratification Theory.
•
The Reinforcement Theory was a development of the uses and gratifications approach.
This theory holds that the media has very little power to shape or influence public opinion, because
audiences are active, texts are open to interpretation and that these media texts actually work to
reinforce our existing opinions.
He called this theory the Reinforcement theory and argues that the media simply reinforces what the
consumer already believes about the world and society.
• Joseph Klapper’s reinforcement theory holds that audiences use the media to reinforce their
existing beliefs and values.
“Mass communication ordinarily does not serve as a necessary and sufficient cause of audience effects,
but rather functions among and through a nexus of mediating factors and influences”.
“These mediating factors are such that they typically render mass communication a contributory agent,
but not the sole cause, in a process of reinforcing the existing conditions”
-Joseph Klapper (1960)
Examples of Reinforcement Theory
Many advertising campaigns would be considered as a good example of the
Reinforcement Theory.
While the advertising industry as a whole, is generally seen in a negative light,
many campaigns also use this media form positively to reinforce and
promote social change such as your Anti-smoking, TAC, Cancer Council and
Dove Campaigns.
These campaigns, especially in recent years, do use shock tactics and
emotional ploys to get their message across.
But the theory being these are things the audience already knows about, for
example the effects of driving while over the limit but are reinforcing the
message to receiver through these means. However it is interesting to
note the context and technique in which these campaigns are now trying
to get their ‘message’ across.
Look at pg 79 of Media 2
Criticisms of the Reinforcement Theory
• One problem with reinforcement theory is when
audiences experience new information, something that
they have never considered or experienced before.
• How will audiences react to something they have never
experienced or thought about?
• How is this reinforcing?
• What effects might such new material have on
audiences?
Uses & Gratification Theory
Paul Lazerfeld and his associates at the Structural Functionist School 1940.
Further research was also done in 1974 by Blumer & Katz.
This method of studying the media recognises the multiple functions the media plays in the
lives of audiences.
The Uses and Gratification theory states that the media actually has no power over the
audiences at all. Audiences consist of individuals who can determine the media they
wish to consume. This means that the text is regarded as ‘open’ to individual
interpretation and that audiences are active in their media usage.
Whereas Agenda Setting Function holds the idea of the media ‘gatekeeping’, (selection
and omission)
Uses and Gratification theory states that it is the audiences who are ‘gatekeeping’ the
media.
Arising in the latter part of the twentieth century as a reaction to the inadequacies of
ignoring audience motivations, which had come to be recognised in earlier theories.
This approach focuses on why people use particular media rather than on the content.
Unlike Hypodermic/Bullet, U&G is a reception theory. It is concerned with what people
do with the media they consume, which allows for a variety of responses and
interpretations.
This approach focuses on why people use particular media rather than on the content
These needs are frequently understood to include:
•
Surveillance: we like to keep an eye on what is happening in the world, to find out
what is going on, to learn, to satisfy our curiosity, find information and to reassure
ourselves about our personal security.
•
Personal identity: we use the media to find out who we are by comparing
ourselves with others, by identifying with someone we value, reinforcing our
beliefs and finding models of behaviour.
•
Personal Relationships: the media helps us to gain insight into the lives of others,
to emphathise, to give us something to talk about with our friends and families,
the ‘water cooler’ effect.
•
Diversion: the media can help us to relive stress, to relax, to fill in time, for
emotional release or just for fun.
A good example of U&G would be daytime soap operas – read pg 78 of Media 2.
“people don’t actually read newspapers, they step into them every morning like a hot
bath” – Marshall Mc Luhan.
Criticisms of the Uses and Gratification
Theory
A quantitive approach, surveys and interviews are used to record the views of
audiences which opens up a major criticism to this method.
• How reliable and insightful can audiences be in understanding their use of
the media?
• U&G studies see the audience as powerful and active, at the centre of the
media and of analysis.
• Questions may be asked about this centrality, how can we consider
audience needs and gratification in isolation from the limited media
possibilities which they choose?
• Are audiences autonomous (independent) or are they structured by the
very media to which they turn to for gratification?
• What about the legitimacy of dealing with the psychological needs of the
audience in isolation?
• How can we examine the uses to which the media are put without
examining the content?
The Researchers:
Hypodermic/Bullet Theory:
• Developed 1920’s-1940’s by the Payne Fund Studies group (United States)
• The Frankfurt School (Germany).
Agenda Setting Function:
• Developed 1970’s Birmingham School - Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall
• Mc Combs & Shaw (1972)
Post Modern/Semiotic Theories:
• Came out of semiotic studies (a method of text analysis which we touched
on in SV). Developed by Roland Barthes (1964)
Reinforcement Theory:
• Joseph Klapper (1960)
Uses & Gratification Theory:
• Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch (1974)
• Denis Quail (1987 & 1998)
All links to the researchers material is on Myclasses.
Handout of table to fill in on theories