Chapter 7 Free Black People in Antebellum America I. Demographics of Freedom Three regions to consider – The North – The Upper South – The Deep South Most free blacks lived in the Upper South – Few in the Deep South • Southern states made manumissions more difficult See Map 7-1 Demographics Free African Americans in 1860 – The North – The Upper South – The Deep South – Total – Total Population U.S. 226,152 224,963 36,955 488,070 26,957,471 II. The Jacksonian Era Transportation revolution – Steamboats • Robert Fulton – Turnpikes and Canals • National Road • Erie Canal – Railroads The Jacksonian Era (cont.) Market revolution – Commercial farming – Factory production – Reform movements – Universal white manhood suffrage The Jacksonian Era (cont.) – Mass political parties • Universal white manhood suffrage • Democrats and Whigs – Economic nationalism » Adams, Clay, and the American System • Nullification crisis, 1832-1833 – Andrew Jackson » State rights The Jacksonian Era (cont.) Whig party, 1834-1852 – Anti-Jackson coalition – Nationalist approach to economy • Protective tariff • National bank • Federal monies for internal improvements – Opposed territorial expansion – Endorsed evangelical Protestantism • Reforms III. Limited Freedom in the North Black laws – Few black men voted – Segregation • Housing, schools, transportation, employment Fugitive slave law, 1793 – Seized and returned to slaveholder – Kidnapped and enslaved free blacks • Vigilance in the black community Limited Freedom in the North (cont.) Black laws – Anglo-Saxon traits lacking in other races • Black people inferior and incapable – Prohibit or restrict free African-Americans from entering their states – Prove freedom – Post bond Limited Freedom in the North (cont.) Disfranchisement – Common in the North • Except New England – Property qualifications to deny right to vote • Strongest in the Old Northwest – Universal manhood suffrage evolved from one of class to one of race – Before Civil War, ninety-three percent of northern blacks live in states where right to vote was either denied or severely limited Limited Freedom in the North (cont.) Segregation – Exclusionary legislation in Old Northwest • Pervasive discrimination victimized all • Hotels, taverns, public transportation – Atmosphere of hate caused African Americans to distrust white people » Ghettos » Boston ~ “Nigger Hill” » Cincinnati ~ “Little Africa” » Southern visitors argued blacks better off as slaves IV. Black Communities: The Urban North Urban neighborhoods – Resilient families – Poverty – Class divisions – Church and volunteer organizations – Education – See Table 7-2 Black Communities: The Urban North (cont.) Black family – Variety • Two-parent households common in 1820 • Single-parent trend became increasingly common – Headed by women » High male mortality rate » Employment opportunities • Financial need encouraged boarders – Extended families Black Communities: The Urban North (cont.) Employment – Rising European immigration filled jobs – Young black men excluded from apprenticeships – Violence used against employers – Led to deskilling of blacks • Menial labor • Low wages • Unemployment common Black Communities: The Urban North (cont.) Black elite – Ministers, doctors, lawyers, and undertakers • Carpenters, barbers, waiters, and coachman – Black institutions and culture – Anti-slavery movement – Racial justice – Bridge to sympathetic white people Black Communities: The Urban North (cont.) Black professionals – Physicians • James McCune Smith, John S. Rock, Martin R. Delaney – Attorneys • Macon B. Allen, Robert Morris – Artists and musicians • Robert S. Duncanson, Patrick Reason, • Edmonia Lewis, Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield – Authors • Frederick Douglass, William Nell, William Wells Brown V. African-American Institutions First appeared during the revolutionary era, then increased and multiplied. – Schools – Mutual aid organizations – Benevolent and fraternal organizations – Newspapers and journals – Theaters African-American Institutions (cont.) Black churches – Spoke against slavery and racial oppression – Many remained affiliated with white churches – Many northern blacks attended white churches • Segregated, separate Sunday schools for black children • Took communion after white people • African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) – 17,000 members in U.S. and Canada African-American Institutions (cont.) Public schools – Tax-supported public schools started in Massachusetts in 1827 • Racially segregated in the North between 18201860 • Believed black children lacked mental capacity • Lowered the quality of education • Feared black students attracted more blacks to district • Many black children excluded from public schools African-American Institutions (cont.) – Whites people were reluctant to spend tax dollars on black public schools • Lack of funds meant poor education or none at all • White teachers paid less for teaching in black schools • Black leaders divided over segregated schools – 1845 Massachusetts public schools integrated, except Boston » Boston integrated in 1855 » Some progress in smaller districts in the North » Most school in the North, however, remained segregated • Colleges – By 1860, most northern colleges admitted black applicants African-American Institutions (cont.) Voluntary associations – Mutual aid societies attractive to women – Black Odd Fellows – Prince Hall Masons Evangelical Protestantism and reforms – Literary • Phoenix Literary Society – Temperance • Middle class • Helped unite black communities VI. Free Blacks: The Upper South Family ties to slaves – Increased suffering for those enslaved – The sale south of friends and loved ones – Gained a reputation for harboring fugitives Greater risk of being enslaved – An assumption of slavery in most states Problems traveling, congregating, owning firearms – Greater exclusion than northern counterparts • Hotels, trains, parks, hospitals, etc. Free Blacks: The Upper South (cont.) Employment – Urban areas before 1850 • Less competition from European immigrants • Most free black men were unskilled laborers or waiters • Most free black women washed clothes or worked as domestic servants Schools – No racial integration and no public funding • Most black children received no formal education • Churches and individuals provided sporadic opportunities VII. Free Blacks: The Deep South No revolutionary rhetoric nor changing economy Fewer manumissions – Usually mixed-race children Three-caste system in Deep South – Whites, free blacks, and slaves – Strong ties between free blacks and former masters • Loans, jobs, and protection cemented this bond • Better off economically than free black people in other regions Half live in cities – Stronger position in skilled trades • Increased conflict and tension among white skilled workers VIII. Conclusion Life for free black people in the Upper and Deep South more difficult than in the North – Presumption of slavery – More restrictive laws