Organization Theory
Building a Model of Empowerment
Practice
The role of theories
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Theories describe the distribution of power &
resources in organizations, how organizations
function, how people interact in organizations, and
how organization systems maintain themselves.
Theories must be empirically tested and verified.
Independent and dependent variables must be
identified in order to test a theory.
Therefore theories contain assumptions about
cause and effect relationships
Theories can either be broad and
abstract and pertaining to general
patterns in society
or
describe patterns that occur in
specific situations
The “effect” aspect of cause and effect
relationships are outcomes, things that occur
because of specific events or actions.
Consequently, they suggest specific actions
or skills that can be used by social workers
to produce results.
General and More Specific Theories
|
Practice Activities in Model
(Intervention or Cause)
|
Outcomes or Effects
In social work, we use theory to define a
specific set of actions or interventions that
can be used to produce outcomes. We may
also apply aspects of theories to certain
situations.
For example, power-dependency theory tells us that
resource donors acquire power by transferring money
and goods to people that can’t reciprocate. This
suggests that nonprofit organizations should not
accept funds from a single large donor if they want to
be independent. This theory can also be applied to
relationships between clients who receive free services
and the organizations. Unless the client has alternative
options for service, can go without the service, can
exchange services with the organization or use power
to pressure the organization, they will be dependent
upon and obligated to the organization!
In social work, we differentiate between
perspectives, theories, and models
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A perspective is an approach to practice that involves basic value
assumptions about best practices. For example, the strengths
perspective tells us to look at the individual’s, community’s, or
organization’s strengths rather than deficits.
Perspectives give us only very general information about the
outcomes specific actions will produce.
A theory contains assumptions about cause and effect
relationships that have been established as valid through
empirical testing. Theories help us link specific actions or
interventions with specific outcomes.
Practice models provide detailed frameworks for understanding
social problems and developing responses to those problems.
Models include, a theoretical framework, an intervention
approach, and probable outcomes associated with this approach.
Historical overview of organizational
theory
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Weber – developed organizational theories in early part of the
20th century based on German models of public organizations.
Ideal organizations had organizational structures, clearly defined
supervisory structures, and standardization of tasks. Decisionmaking was to be rational (objective) and not based on political
motives.
Taylor developed “Scientific Management.” This method was to
be used by managers find the most efficient or scientific method
for breaking down work into concrete tasks that could be
assigned to individual workers. Efficient performance was
expected to maximize work output (Scott, 1987). Often efficiency
“experts” were brought in to industrial plants to conduct time and
motion studies to find the best allocation of staff resources and
skill assignments
Basic assumptions of the systems approach are incorporated into
many theories about how organizations work:
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Organizational systems change constantly through
interaction and exchange with their environments.
Effective organizational systems are highly open –
but boundaries between the organizational system
and its external environment are well defined.
Organizational systems may be orderly and
predictable but may also be disorderly and
unpredictable.
Order may rest on coercion and domination as well
as consensus and cooperation.
Places equal emphasis on conflict and change as
order and stability.
Human Relations Theory
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Originates from experiments conducted on plant works at an AT&T factory in
Chicago
(the Hawthorne effect).
The researchers found, among other things that people simply react and change
their behavior in response to being observed.
Other major findings were that organizations have unique cultures influenced by
the values of participants and the fact that people tend to form groups.
Consequently, most workplaces contain informal leaders who may influence the
behavior of other workers.
These leaders and the values shared by group members influence how workers
perform.
Mayo, the primary researcher, based his theory on the assumption that
managers should attempt to use these group norms to influence and motivate
workers.
He also argued that workers need to feel that they have a certain amount of
control over their own work. They should also be given awards for performance.
He also felt that workers perform better in teams or groups.
Other theories focus on:
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Organization structure.
Organization culture and groups of people
interacting in organizations.
How organizations adapt to external
demands.
How power is achieved and used in
organizations.
In social work:
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Strengths and Systems Approaches are
Perspectives.
The systems perspective can be used to create a
model of the different component parts of
organizations and their environments.
Empowerment is a perspective, is a distinct model of
practice, and is a theory in development (some
empirical testing and identification of specific types
of outcomes).
Models of Organizational Practice Include
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Theory X. Control, discipline, and sanctions are needed to force people to do their
work.
Theory Y. Management can take action so that employees will become motivated to
do their work. All workers are to be regarded as goal-oriented and as having potential
to further develop their own talents and skills.
Contingency Theory – Employees are motivated by different things, but need to
achieve a sense of competency. Therefore the manager must provide appropriate
incentives to motivate individual employees.
Human Relations Approach. To maximize performance, staff members need
autonomy, involvement in management decisions, and appropriate rewards. People
react as group members.
Theory Z – focuses on quality of production, collective accountability and loyalty.
Decisions are made by consensus.
Participatory Management – Staff involvement in organizational decision-making
increases job satisfaction and productivity; decreases staff turnover.
Feminist Management - Fights oppression; creates “management partnerships”
among participants; assumes women manage differently then men, focusing on
interpersonal relationships rather than traditional approaches to power & authority.
Decisions are made by consensus & cooperation.
Total Quality Management – Management produces an organizational culture
based on product quality, consumer satisfaction, standardization of production, and
employee empowerment.
Empowerment Model in Social Work Practice
Social Worker
Constituent
Organization
Role
Facilitator
Change Agent
Resource
Provider
Practice
Activity
Information
Forms SelfHelp Groups
Leadership
Training
Self-Advocacy
Group Member
Decision-maker
Political Activist
Evaluator
Outcomes
Worker SelfNew Skills
Efficacy
Self-Efficacy
Policy Change Political Power
Constituents
Political Power
Better Service
Empowerment Model in Organizations
Social Worker
Constituent
Organization
Role
Facilitator
Change Agent
Decision-maker
Provides
Opportunities for
Decision-making
Process/
Tasks
Provides Information
Provides Leaderships
and Skills Training
Facilitates Self-help
Groups
Raises Critical
Consciousness
Identifies Informal
Networks
Self-Advocacy
Group Member
Board Member
Program Planner
Researcher
Lobbyist
Political Activist
Establishes
Strong Networks
Provides
Resources & Staff
Provides Support
for Groups
Links Local
Networks to
Institutions
Provides Effective
Services
Facilitates
Political Activism
Empowerment Outcomes
Social Worker Constituent
Organization
Role
Facilitator
Change Agent
Decision-maker
Provides
Opportunities for
Decision-making
Outcomes
Increases Own Skills
Personal
Empowerment
Delivers Effective
Services
Power to Change
organization
Political Activist
Increase Own Skills
Personal
Empowerment
Acquires Resources
Power to Change
Organization
Participation in
Social/Political Action
Recruits Skilled
Constituents/
Volunteers
Better Response to
Client Needs
Improves Service
Effectiveness/
Utilization
Political Power
Theoretical Components of Empowerment Model
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Systems and Ecological Approaches (practice should occur at multiple levels – personal, interpersonal, and political). We also should be knowledgeable about how different systems interact
and/or compete with one another.
Human relations/Participatory Management. Staff should be involved in organization decisionmaking. To motivate workers, managers must provide opportunities, training, and incentives to help
workers obtain a sense of competence.
Contingency Theory. Ecological Perspective – social problems occur when individuals interact
with the social environment. There is continuing competition for resources.
Conflict Theory – Various social groups in society and within the organization compete for
resources. Allocation of services is often determined by perceptions of in-group versus out-group
status of recipients. Members of oppressed groups should acquire power in order to gain resources
and civil rights.
Feminist Theory – organizations should minimize the social distance between administrators, staff,
and clients. All should be partners in decision-making.
Transformative model/Social constructivist paradigm-Service consumers should be equal partners
with staff in decision-making process. Service users/consumers reduce own feelings of oppression
and low self-esteem by engaging with the organization in social action.
Power-dependency Theory. Clients who receive free services are dependent upon or can controlled
by the organization. Therefore service delivery should incorporate the principle of reciprocity
(service users contribute something back to the organization). The organization should create
structures that help service users obtain power.
Political-economy Theory. People inside the organization represent a variety of different
constituency groups with different amounts of power. People within the organization are influenced
by the organization’s external environment. The manager must reconcile internal/external demands
on the organization. One way to do this is for the organization and its members to develop sources of
political power.
Total Quality Management. Work teams develop quality indicators and work to achieve these goals.
This method results in the psychological empowerment of workers and improvements in service
quality.
Introduction to Start-up.com:
Understanding Organization Culture
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Values and perspectives of organization participants influence
how organizations function.
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The organization’s mission and the philosophy of managers and
other decision-makers influence what the organization can do.
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Participants bring their own experiences and ways of interacting
into the organization.
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Organization structure and technology also influence how the
organization operates and the influence the organization has on
its members.