Chapters 2 and 3:
Processes of Science
Reading Assignment
Chapter 2 and 3 in Teaching
Science to Every Child:
Using Culture as a Starting
Point
Benefits of Process Skills
• Students develop “sense-making” tools and become
more independent learners.
• English language learners have the opportunity to
practice communication in the context of actual science
activities.
• Students have an opportunity to experience the social
aspect of of the professional scientific community as they
work with materials and ideas.
• Students natural curiosity is supported.
Science Process Skills
Basic Process Skills
• Observing - process of gathering information using all
appropriate senses and instruments that extend the senses.
Based on empirical process without regard to inferences or
theories. Observations are the primary way that children
obtain information.
Observations are always based on prior knowledge. They
depend on the relevant knowledge and ideas that a scientist
brings to the situation.
• Inferring - making an interpretation of observations that is
based on prior knowledge and experiences.
• Classifying – process of organizing objects into groups on
observable properties.
Basic Process Skills (continued)
• Measuring - quantifying variables using a variety of instruments
(rulers, graduated cylinders, balances, stop watches, thermometers,
etc.) and standard and non standard units.
• Estimating – judging an approximate amount or value. An estimate is
not based on a direct measure.
• Predicting - make a forecast of a possible outcome of an investigation
based on known.
• Predictions look forward to what might happen. Inferences look
backward and are types of explanations of what has already
happened. Tables and graphs provide the basis for predictions about
data points not yet measured
• Communicating - using language (spoken, written and symbolic) to
express their thoughts in ways that others can understand.
Observing and Inferring
Who do you see –
An Old Lady or a Young Lady?
Both explanations are based on the same observations; only the inference is
different. When children realize that multiple inferences are possible to
explain an observation, they begin to acknowledge the inferences that
others generate and become more open-minded in scientific discussions.
Another Example - Animal Tracks in the Snow
For example: Have students make a list of
statements about the animal tracks. Help the
students differentiate between the observations
and the inferences.
Guidelines for Classifying
1. Organize objects or events based on properties that can
be observed.
2. Divide the objects into only two groups that are specific
enough to avoid the danger of some objects being
classifies in two groups. Which of these Venn diagrams
would meet this guideline?
3. Each object should be in its own group for the classification
to be complete.
Applying Guideline 3
One way to classify each of the 13 shapes below, would be
to divide the objects into 3 groups.
Applying guideline 3 would be too difficult for
kindergartners.
Classifying with Dichotomous Keys
The most common way to create a classification system is
dichotomous key.
• These are a series of paired statements, which identify
the organism through a process of elimination.
• Each pair of statements consists of “either or,” or
comparison statements.
• The first statements are more general while the following
pairs of statements are more specific.
• Organisms are identified as their characteristics are
traced through the paired statements in the dichotomous
key.
Constructing Dichotomous Keys
As an example, we could construct a
key using the following stationary
supplies taken from a student's
pencil case.
Classifying with Tree Diagrams
A tree diagram is essentially the same as a dichotomous key.
Measuring
quantifying variables using a variety of instruments
(rulers, graduated cylinders, balances, stop watches,
thermometers, etc.) and standard and non standard
units.
Predicting and the Benefits of Making Mistakes
• Jean Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual
development of children. Based upon his observations, he
concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults,
they simply think differently.
• Albert Einstein called Piaget’s discovery "so simple only a
genius could have thought of it.“
• Piaget’s theory revolves around Equilibration where
experience (external and internal) can create dilemmas and
mental conflict; learner is biologically driven to regain
equilibrium.
• Assimilation occurs when a learner incorporates new
information into our existing mental frameworks.
• Accommodation occurs when a learner encounters new
ideas that cause him or her to rearrange existing mental
frameworks.
• As children progress through the stages of cognitive
development, it is important to maintain a balance
between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and
changing behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation).
• Equilibration helps explain how children are able to
move from one stage of thought into the next.
The Importance of Communicating as Science Process Skill
Vygotsky claimed that “before a person can
internalize knowledge, he or she must first share
that idea with others.” (Social Constructivism)
Communication reinforces the social dimensions
of the culture of science and helps students
socially construct knowledge.
Especially helpful to students from different
cultures who are learning English.
Communicating and Science Teaching
Would reading a story, creating a poster, presenting a skit,
etc. be science? – not automatically… Another process
skill needs to be involved, a science concept, for
example.
• Teachers should connect communicating with another
science process skill.
• Students must be using science process skills for us to
claim that they are doing science.
Teachers must reflect on their own science teaching to
make sure that the students are really doing science.
Learning Styles?
Learning styles – based on the reading Point-Counterpoint
on pp. 70 – 73. – How do you feel about using learning
styles with diverse learners?
There are several surveys online. I personally like Howard
Gardner’s multiple intelligence work on the 8 intelligences.
• Linguistic ,Logical-mathematical, Spatial, Bodily
kinesthetic, Musical, Inter-personal, Intra-personal,
Naturalist
http://www.quizfarm.com/quizzes/new/profesorrod/8-multipleintelligences-test/
Gardner, Howard
Process Skills With ELL’s
Different terms have been used to describe or characterize
children whose second language is English. For example,
students with Limited English Proficiency (LEPs), students
for whom English is a Second Language (ESLs), or Second
Language Learners (SLLs). Currently educators refer to
these children as English Language Learners (ELLs).
Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence
(CREDE) – Five Principles for Effective Pedagogy
1. Joint Productive Activity: Teacher and Students
Producing Together
2. Developing Language and Literacy Across the
Curriculum
3. Making Meaning: Connecting School to Students’ Lives
4. Teaching Complex Thinking
5. Teaching Through Conversations
Process Skills and Science Standards
Process skills – first a substantial feature of
elementary and middle school science – after
1957 Russian launch of Sputnik threat to
America’s scientific, educational, and military
superiority.
The NSES place more emphasis on integrating the
science process skills with content learning. See
Table 3.2.
The Scientific Worldview
The 6 process skills, components of the culture of science,
provide all children with access to the scientific
worldview.
Basically, students are utilizing the Scientific Method
1. Define the problem
2. Gather information
3. State your hypothesis
4. Test your hypothesis
5. Form your conclusion
6. Publish your results
Integrated Process Skills (Grades 3 and higher)
Integrated skills require students to think at a higher level. Several basic skills are combined to
solve problems.
Identifying and controlling variables • Manipulated variable (independent variable) – variable that the experimenter changes
• Responding variable (dependent variable) – variable that changes in response to changes
in the manipulated variable.
• Controlled Variables or constants – variables that are kept constant or unchanged.
Forming hypotheses - stating a possible cause and effect relationship in nature that might be
found through investigations.
Experimenting - Designing and Conducting Controlled Investigations
• deliberately changing one variable at a time
• observing the effect on another variable while holding all other variables constant
Graphing - Converting measurements into a diagram to show the relationship between the
measures.
Interpreting data - Collecting observations and measurement (data) in an organized way and
drawing conclusions from the information obtained by reading tables, graphs, and diagrams.
Forming models - Creating an abstract (mental) or concrete (physical) illustration of an object
or event.
Investigating - Requires using observations, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing
conclusions to solve a problem.