Cynicism (Greek: κυνισμός) is a school of ancient Greek philosophy as practiced by the Cynics
(Greek: Κυνικοί, Latin: Cynici). For the Cynics, the purpose of life was to live in virtue, in
agreement with nature. As reasoning creatures, people could gain happiness by rigorous training
and by living in a way which was natural for humans, rejecting all conventional desires for
wealth, power, sex, and fame. Instead, they were to lead a simple life free from all possessions.
The first philosopher to outline these themes was Antisthenes, who had been a pupil
of Socrates in the late 5th century BC. He was followed by Diogenes of Sinope, who lived in a
tub on the streets of Athens. Diogenes took Cynicism to its logical extremes, and came to be
seen as the archetypal Cynic philosopher. He was followed by Crates of Thebes who gave away
a large fortune so he could live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens. Cynicism spread with the rise
of Imperial Rome in the 1st century, and Cynics could be found begging and preaching
throughout the cities of the Empire. It finally disappeared in the late 5th century, although some
have claimed that early Christianity adopted many of its ascetic and rhetorical ideas. By the 19th
century, emphasis on the negative aspects of Cynic philosophy led to the modern understanding
of cynicism to mean a disposition of disbelief in the sincerity or goodness of human motives and
actions. The name Cynic derives from Ancient Greek κυνικός (kynikos), meaning "dog-like", and
κύων (kyôn), meaning "dog" (genitive: kynos). One explanation offered in ancient times for why
the Cynics were called dogs was because the first Cynic, Antisthenes, taught in
the Cynosarges gymnasium at Athens. The word Cynosarges means the place of the white dog. It
seems certain, however, that the word dog was also thrown at the first Cynics as an insult for
their shameless rejection of conventional manners, and their decision to live on the
streets. Diogenes, in particular, was referred to as the Dog, a distinction he seems to have reveled
in, stating that "other dogs bite their enemies, I bite my friends to save them." Later Cynics also
sought to turn the word to their advantage, as a later commentator explained. There are four
reasons why the Cynics are so named. First because of the indifference of their way of life, for
they make a cult of indifference and, like dogs, eat and make love in public, go barefoot, and
sleep in tubs and at crossroads. The second reason is that the dog is a shameless animal, and they
make a cult of shamelessness, not as being beneath modesty, but as superior to it. The third
reason is that the dog is a good guard, and they guard the tenets of their philosophy. The fourth
reason is that the dog is a discriminating animal which can distinguish between its friends and
enemies. So do they recognize as friends those who are suited to philosophy, and receive them
kindly, while those unfitted they drive away, like dogs, by barking at them. Cynicism is one of
the most striking of all the Hellenistic philosophies. It offered people the possibility of happiness
and freedom from suffering in an age of uncertainty. Although there was never an official Cynic
doctrine, the fundamental principles of Cynicism can be summarized as follows:
1. The goal of life is Eudaimonia and mental clarity or lucidity (aτυφια) - freedom from
τύφος (smoke) which signified ignorance, mindlessness, folly, and conceit.
2. Eudaimonia is achieved by living in accord with Nature as understood by human reason.
3. τύφος (Arrogance) is caused by false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions,
unnatural desires, and a vicious character.
4. Eudaimonia or
human
flourishing,
depends
on
self-sufficiency
(αντάρκεια), equanimity, arete, love of humanity, parrhesia and indifference to the
vicissitudes of life (αδιαφορία).[11]
5. One progresses towards flourishing and clarity through ascetic practices (ασκησις) which
help one become free from influences – such as wealth, fame, or power – that have no
value in Nature. Examples include Diogenes' practice of living in a tub and walking
barefoot in winter.
6. A Cynic practices shamelessness or impudence (Αναιδεια) and defaces the Nomos of
society; the laws, customs, and social conventions which people take for granted.
Thus a Cynic has no property and rejects all conventional values of money, fame, power or
reputation. A life lived according to nature requires only the bare necessities required for
existence, and one can become free by unshackling oneself from any needs which are the result
of convention. The Cynics adopted Hercules as their hero, as epitomizing the ideal Cynic.
Hercules "was he who brought Cerberus, the hound of Hades, from the underworld, a point of
special appeal to the dog-man, Diogenes." According to Lucian, "Cerberus and Cynic are surely
related through the dog." The Cynic way of life required continuous training, not just in
exercising one's judgments and mental impressions, but a physical training as well:
[Diogenes] used to say, that there were two kinds of exercise: that, namely, of the mind and that
of the body; and that the latter of these created in the mind such quick and agile impressions at
the time of its performance, as very much facilitated the practice of virtue; but that one was
imperfect without the other, since the health and vigour necessary for the practice of what is
good, depend equally on both mind and body. None of this meant that the Cynic would retreat
from society. Cynics would in fact live in the full glare of the public's gaze and would be quite
indifferent in the face of any insults which might result from their unconventional behavior. The
Cynics are said to have invented the idea of cosmopolitanism: when he was asked where he
came from, Diogenes replied that he was "a citizen of the world, (kosmopolitês)." The ideal
Cynic would evangelize; as the watchdog of humanity, it was their job to hound people about the
error of their ways. The ancient Cynics rejected conventional social values, and would criticize
the types of behaviors, such as greed, which they viewed as causing suffering. Emphasis on this
aspect of their teachings led, in the late 18th and early 19th century, to the modern understanding
of cynicism as "an attitude of scornful or jaded negativity, especially a general distrust of the
integrity or professed motives of others." This modern definition of cynicism is in marked
contrast to the ancient philosophy, which emphasized "virtue and moral freedom in liberation
from desire."
Various philosophers, such as the Pythagoreans, had advocated simple living in the centuries
preceding the Cynics. In the early 6th century BC, Anacharsis, a Scythian sage had combined
plain living together with criticisms of Greek customs in a manner which would become
standard among the Cynics. Perhaps of importance were tales of Indian philosophers, known to
later Greeks as the Gymnosophists, who had adopted a strict asceticism together with a
disrespect for established laws and customs. By the 5th century BC, the Sophists had begun a
process of questioning many aspects of Greek society such as religion, law and ethics. However,
the most immediate influence for the Cynic school was Socrates. Although he was not an ascetic,
he did profess a love of Virtue and an indifference to wealth, together with a disdain for general
opinion. These aspects of Socrates' thought, which formed only a minor part of Plato's
philosophy, became the central inspiration for another of Socrates' pupils, Antisthenes.
Bust of Antisthenes
Antisthenes
The story of Cynicism traditionally begins with Antisthenes (c. 445–365 BC), who was an older
contemporary of Plato and a pupil of Socrates. At about 25 years his junior, Antisthenes was one
of the most important of Socrates' disciples.[29] Although later classical authors had little doubt
about labelling him as the founder of Cynicism,[30] his philosophical views seem to be more
complex than the later simplicities of pure Cynicism. In the list of works ascribed to Antisthenes
by Diogenes Laërtius, writings on Language, Dialogue and Literature far outnumber those
on Ethics or Politics, although they may reflect how his philosophical interests changed with
time. It is certainly true that Antisthenes preached a life of poverty: I have enough to eat till my
hunger is stayed, to drink till my thirst is sated; to clothe myself as well; and out of doors not
[even] Callias there, with all his riches, is more safe than I from shivering; and when I find
myself indoors, what warmer shirting do I need than my bare walls?
Diogenes of Sinope
Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BC) dominates the story of Cynicism like no other figure. He
originally went to Athens, fleeing his home city, after he and his father, who was in charge of the
mint at Sinope, got into trouble for falsifying the coinage. (The phrase "defacing the currency"
later became proverbial in describing Diogenes' rejection of conventional values.) Later tradition
claimed that Diogenes became the disciple of Antisthenes, but it is by no means certain that they
ever met. Diogenes did however adopt Antisthenes' teachings and the ascetic way of life,
pursuing a life of self-sufficiency (autarkeia), austerity (askēsis), and shamelessness (anaideia).
There are many anecdotes about his extreme asceticism (sleeping in a tub), his shameless
behavior (eating raw meat), and his criticism of conventional society ("bad people obey their
lusts as servants obey their masters"),[44] and although it is impossible to tell which of these
stories are true, they do illustrate the broad character of the man, including an ethical
seriousness.
Diogenes of Sinope was a controversial figure. His father minted coins for a living, and when
Diogenes took to debasement of currency, he was banished from Sinope.[1]After being exiled, he
moved to Athens to debunk cultural conventions. Diogenes modeled himself on the example
of Heracles. He believed that virtue was better revealed in action than in theory. He used
his simple lifestyle and behavior to criticize the social values and institutions of what he saw as a
corrupt society. He declared himself a cosmopolitan. There are many tales about him
dogging Antisthenes' footsteps and becoming his "faithful hound".[3] Diogenes made a virtue of
poverty. He begged for a living and slept in a large ceramic jar[4] in the marketplace. He became
notorious for his philosophical stunts such as carrying a lamp in the daytime, claiming to be
looking for an honest man. He embarrassed Plato, disputed his interpretation of Socrates and
sabotaged his lectures. Diogenes was also responsible for publicly mocking Alexander the
Great.After being captured by pirates and sold into slavery, Diogenes eventually settled
in Corinth. There he passed his philosophy of Cynicism to Crates, who taught it to Zeno of
Citium, who fashioned it into the school of Stoicism, one of the most enduring schools of Greek
philosophy. None of Diogenes' many writings has survived, but details of his life come in the
form of anecdotes (chreia), especially from Diogenes Laërtius, in his book Lives and Opinions of
Eminent Philosophers. All we have is a number of anecdotes concerning his life and sayings
attributed to him in a number of scattered classical sources.
In Athens
According to one story, Diogenes went to the Oracle at Delphi to ask for its advice and was told
that he should "deface the currency". Following the debacle in Sinope, Diogenes decided that the
oracle meant that he should deface the political currency rather than actual coins. He traveled
to Athens and made it his life's goal to challenge established customs and values. He argued that
instead of being troubled about the true nature of evil, people merely rely on customary
interpretations. This distinction between nature ("physis") and custom ("nomos") is a favorite
theme of ancient Greek philosophy, and one that Plato takes up in The Republic, in the legend of
the Ring of Gyges. Diogenes arrived in Athens with a slave named Manes who abandoned him
shortly thereafter. With characteristic humor, Diogenes dismissed his ill fortune by saying, "If
Manes can live without Diogenes, why not Diogenes without Manes?"[12] Diogenes would mock
such a relation of extreme dependency. He found the figure of a master who could do nothing for
himself contemptibly helpless. He was attracted by the ascetic teaching of Antisthenes, a student
of Socrates. When Diogenes asked Antisthenes to mentor him, Antisthenes ignored him and
reportedly "eventually beat him off with his staff". Diogenes responds, "Strike, for you will find
no wood hard enough to keep me away from you, so long as I think you've something to say."
Diogenes became Antisthenes' pupil, despite the brutality with which he was initially received.
Whether the two ever really met is still uncertain,[14][15][16] but he surpassed his master in both
reputation and the austerity of his life. He considered his avoidance of earthly pleasures a
contrast to and commentary on contemporary Athenian behaviors. This attitude was grounded in
a disdain for what he regarded as the folly, pretense, vanity, self-deception, and artificiality of
human conduct. The stories told of Diogenes illustrate the logical consistency of his character.
He inured himself to the weather by living in a clay wine jar belonging to the temple of Cybele.
He destroyed the single wooden bowl he possessed on seeing a peasant boy drink from the
hollow of his hands. He then exclaimed," Fool that I am, to have been carrying superfluous
baggage all this time!" t was contrary to Athenian customs to eat within the marketplace, and
still he would eat, for, as he explained when rebuked, it was during the time he was in the
marketplace that he felt hungry. He used to stroll about in full daylight with a lamp; when asked
what he was doing, he would answer, "I am just looking for an honest man." Diogenes looked for
a human being but reputedly found nothing but rascals and scoundrels. When Plato gave
Socrates' definition of man as "featherless bipeds" and was much praised for the definition,
Diogenes plucked a chicken and brought it into Plato's Academy, saying, "Behold! I've brought
you a man." After this incident, "with broad flat nails" was added to Plato's definition.
In Corinth
According to a story which seems to have originated with Menippus of Gadara,[24] Diogenes was
captured by pirates while on voyage to Aegina and sold as a slave in Crete to
a Corinthian named Xeniades. Being asked his trade, he replied that he knew no trade but that of
governing men, and that he wished to be sold to a man who needed a master. In fact, this was a
pun. In ancient Greek this would sound both as "Governing men" and "Teaching values to
people".[25] Xeniades liked his spirit and hired Diogenes to tutor his children. As tutor to
Xeniades' two sons,[26] it is said that he lived in Corinth for the rest of his life, which he devoted
to preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. There are many stories about what actually
happened to him after his time with Xeniades' two sons. There are stories stating he was set free
after he became "a cherished member of the household", while one says he was set free almost
immediately, and still another states that "he grew old and died at Xeniades' house in Corinth."
He is even said to have lectured to large audiences at the Isthmian Games. Although most of the
stories about him living in a jar are located in Athens, there are some accounts of him living in a
jar near the Craneum gymnasium in Corinth: A report that Philip II of Macedon was marching
on the town had thrown all Corinth into a bustle; one was furbishing his arms, another wheeling
stones, a third patching the wall, a fourth strengthening a battlement, every one making himself
useful somehow or other. Diogenes having nothing to do – of course no one thought of giving
him a job – was moved by the sight to gather up his philosopher's cloak and begin rolling his tub
energetically up and down the Craneum; an acquaintance asked for, and got, the explanation: "I
do not want to be thought the only idler in such a busy multitude; I am rolling my tub to be like
the rest." It was in Corinth that a meeting between Alexander the Great and Diogenes is
supposed to have taken place. The accounts of Plutarch and Diogenes Laërtius recount that they
exchanged only a few words: while Diogenes was relaxing in the sunlight in the morning,
Alexander, thrilled to meet the famous philosopher, asked if there was any favour he might do
for him. Diogenes replied, "Yes, stand out of my sunlight". Alexander then declared, "If I were
not Alexander, then I should wish to be Diogenes", to which Diogenes replied, "If I were not
Diogenes, I should also wish to be Diogenes." In another account of the conversation, Alexander
found the philosopher looking attentively at a pile of human bones. Diogenes explained, "I am
searching for the bones of your father but cannot distinguish them from those of a slave."
Along with Antisthenes and Crates of Thebes, Diogenes is considered one of the founders
of Cynicism. The ideas of Diogenes, like those of most other Cynics, must be arrived at
indirectly. No writings of Diogenes survived even though he is reported to have authored over
ten books, a volume of letters and seven tragedies.[37] Cynic ideas are inseparable from Cynic
practice; therefore what we know about Diogenes is contained in anecdotes concerning his life
and sayings attributed to him in a number of scattered classical sources. Diogenes maintained
that all the artificial growths of society were incompatible with happiness and that morality
implies a return to the simplicity of nature. So great was his austerity and simplicity that
the Stoics would later claim him to be a wise man or "sophos". In his words, "Humans have
complicated every simple gift of the gods." Although Socrates had previously identified himself
as belonging to the world, rather than a city, Diogenes is credited with the first known use of the
word "cosmopolitan". When he was asked where he came from, he replied, "I am a citizen of the
world (cosmopolites)".[40] This was a radical claim in a world where a man's identity was
intimately tied to his citizenship in a particular city state. An exile and an outcast, a man with no
social identity, Diogenes made a mark on his contemporaries. Diogenes had nothing but disdain
for Plato and his abstract philosophy. Diogenes viewed Antisthenes as the true heir to Socrates,
and shared his love of virtue and indifference to wealth, together with a disdain for general
opinion.[43] Diogenes shared Socrates' belief that he could function as doctor to men's souls and
improve them morally, while at the same time holding contempt for their obtuseness. Plato once
described Diogenes as "a Socrates gone mad."
Diogenes as dogged or dog-like
Many anecdotes of Diogenes refer to his dog-like behavior, and his praise of a dog's virtues. It is
not known whether Diogenes was insulted with the epithet "doggish" and made a virtue of it, or
whether he first took up the dog theme himself. When asked why he was called dog he replied, "I
fawn on those who give me anything, I yelp at those who refuse, and I set my teeth in
rascals."[17] Diogenes believed human beings live artificially and hypocritically and would do
well to study the dog. Besides performing natural body functions in public with ease, a dog will
eat anything, and make no fuss about where to sleep. Dogs live in the present without anxiety,
and have no use for the pretensions of abstract philosophy. In addition to these virtues, dogs are
thought to know instinctively who is friend and who is foe.[51] Unlike human beings who either
dupe others or are duped, dogs will give an honest bark at the truth. Diogenes stated that "other
dogs bite their enemies, I bite my friends to save them."
Cynicism in Rome
There is little record of Cynicism in the 2nd or 1st centuries BC; Cicero (c. 50 BC), who was
much interested in Greek philosophy, had little to say about Cynicism, except that "it is to be
shunned; for it is opposed to modesty, without which there can be neither right nor honor."
However, by the 1st century AD, Cynicism reappeared with full force. The rise of Imperial
Rome, like the Greek loss of independence under Philip and Alexander three centuries earlier,
may have led to a sense of powerlessness and frustration among many people, which allowed a
philosophy which emphasized self-sufficiency and inner-happiness to flourish once again.
Cynics could be found throughout the empire, standing on street corners, preaching about Virtue.
Lucian complained that "every city is filled with such upstarts, particularly with those who enter
the names of Diogenes, Antisthenes, and Crates as their patrons and enlist in the Army of the
Dog," and Aelius Aristides observed that "they frequent the doorways, talking more to the
doorkeepers than to the masters, making up for their lowly condition by using impudence." The
most notable representative of Cynicism in the 1st century AD was Demetrius,
whom Seneca praised as "a man of consummate wisdom, though he himself denied it, constant
to the principles which he professed, of an eloquence worthy to deal with the mightiest subjects."
Cynicism in Rome was both the butt of the satirist and the ideal of the thinker. In the 2nd century
AD, Lucian, whilst pouring scorn on the Cynic philosopher Peregrinus Proteus, nevertheless
praised his own Cynic teacher, Demonax, in a dialogue. Cynicism came to be seen as an
idealized form of Stoicism, a view which led Epictetus to eulogize the ideal Cynic in a lengthy
discourse. According to Epictetus, the ideal Cynic "must know that he is sent as a messenger
from Zeus to people concerning good and bad things, to show them that they have wandered."
Unfortunately for Epictetus, many Cynics of the era did not live up to the ideal: "consider the
present Cynics who are dogs that wait at tables, and in no respect imitate the Cynics of old
except perchance in breaking wind." Unlike Stoicism, which declined as an independent
philosophy after the 2nd century AD, Cynicism seems to have thrived into the 4th century. The
Emperor Julian (ruled 361–363), like Epictetus, praised the ideal Cynic and complained about
the actual practitioners of Cynicism. The final Cynic noted in classical history is Sallustius of
Emesa in the late 5th century. A student of the Neoplatonic philosopher Isidore of Alexandria, he
devoted himself to living a life of Cynic asceticism.