Mnemonic Strategies

Chunking

Method of Loci

Peg Word Mnemonic
Chunking

Grouping elements into “chunks”

Chase and Ericcson’s subjects
 Chunked digits into running times
 Remembered up to 82 digits!

Not as effective as more elaborative strategies
Method of Loci

Based upon visual imagery
 Imagine a grocery list
 (eggs, milk, cheese, bread, butter)

Imaging items placed in a common scene

To recall, mentally stroll through scene

Bizarreness / distinctiveness
Peg Word Mnemonic

Uses prememorized list (e.g., rhyme)

One is a bun ==>

Two is a shoe ==>

Three is a tree ==>

Four is a door ==>
Acronyms

Create “word” from beginning letters

Create a limerick from beginning letters

OOOTTAFAGVAH – 12 Cranial nerves
Why Do Mnemonics
Devices Work?

Provide structure for learning

Provide durable trace (less interference)

Provide retrieval structure
Which Mnemonic is the Best?

Roediger (1980)
Interaction of Encoding and
Retrieval Processes

Anderson & Pichert (1978)



Participants read a story about the activities of
two boys at home either from the point of view of
a burglar or a homebuyer
Later the participants were asked to remember as
much as possible about the story they read
The point of view affected what participants
recalled


Homebuyers were more likely to remember that the
basement was musty
Burglars were more likely to remember the coin
collection and color TV
To Understand Memory
Processes
 Need
to understand encoding
processes, retrieval processes, and
how they function together for short
term storage (STM) and long term
storage (LTM)
Encoding Processes
 Creating
an acoustic code
What it sounds like
 Creating a semantic code
What it means
 Creating a visual code
What it looks like
Encoding Types and STM
Type of code may rely on type of task
 STM refers to memory that needs to be
held temporarily
 Evidence exists for a variety of encoding
types for STM

Evidence for Acoustic Encoding
in STM

Conrad (1964)
 Visually
present a series of letters
 Ask participants to write the order letters are
presented
 What types of errors are made?
Conrad (1964)


Found evidence for the use of an acoustic code
in STM
Participants made acoustic errors
F

Not visual errors
E

for S, B for V, P for B
for F, O for Q, R for P
Participants encoded items acoustically even
though stimuli were presented visually
Shulman (1970)



Evidence for semantic encoding in STM
Participants viewed 10-word lists
Given a recognition test using visually
represented "probe words" which were either:
 Homonyms
- e.g. "bawl" for "ball"
 Synonyms - e.g. "talk" for "speak"
 Identical to the original word
Shulman (1970) Results

The Homonym and Synonym probes produced
similar error rates - this suggests that an equal
amount of acoustic and semantic processing
must be taking place
 Homonyms
 Synonyms
 Identical
- e.g. "bawl" for "ball"
- e.g. "talk" for "speak"
to the original word
Posner & Keele (1967)

Evidence for visual encoding in STM
 Letter
matching task
 Two letters separated by brief interval
 Participant had to indicate if same letter
A-a Yes
 A-A Yes
 A-M No

 Measure
reaction time
Posner & Keele (1967) Results


If letters were the same visually (a-a)
participants were faster than if the
letters were not the same visually (A-a)
Results indicate that visual code was
also present for STM
Encoding Types & LTM
Type of code may rely on type of task
 LTM refers to memory that may be held
permanently
 Evidence exists for a variety of encoding
types for LTM

Semantic Encoding in LTM

Grossman & Eagle (1970)
 Study
41 different words
 Given recognition test after delay
 9 of the distractors were semantically
related to words on list
 9 of the distractors were not
 False alarms for each type: 1.83 of
synonyms, but only 1.05 of unrelated
Visual Encoding in LTM

Frost (1972)
 Participants studied 16 drawings
 Manipulated visual orientation and semantic category
 After a delay, participants were asked if they had
studied an object with the same name as the test object
 Reaction time was measured
 Participants responded faster to identical drawings than
drawings in a different orientation
 This result indicates visual encoding occurred
Acoustic Encoding in LTM
Evidence of very long-term memory for
songs
 Rubin (1977)
 Participants recall more of the text when
provided with the melody of a well-learned
song ("Star Spangled Banner") than when
given no cue

Transfer from STM to LTM

Consolidation
 Integrating
new information into stored
information

Disruption of consolidation is studied in
amnesiacs
 ECT
patients (Squire)
Principles to Strengthen Memory
Elaborative rehearsal is better than
maintenance rehearsal
 Distributed practice is better than massed
practice

 Spacing

effect
Organizing information to enhance
memory
Why Does Distributed Practice
Work?

REM Theory
 The
more REM sessions
following study sessions, the
more consolidation that occurs

Multiple encoding contexts
theory
 Multiple
study sessions lead to
multiple types of encoding, thus
more possibility of matching
during test conditions
Prospective Memory

The ability to remember a future intention
 Buying
bread on your way home from work
 Going to the dentist on Wednesday

Retrospective memory is memory of the
past
Retrieval Processes




Getting information back out
Multiple processes can be used to enhance
retrieval
Different strategies are used for short term
storage and long term storage
Matching the type of processes done during
encoding with the type of processes done at
retrieval increases success
Retrieval from STM

Is the search serial or parallel?
 Serial
indicates one by one search
 Parallel means all items are processed at once

Is the search exhaustive or self-terminating?
 Exhaustive
indicates that all items in the set are
examined
 Self-terminating means that after target is found the
search stops
Studying Searching in STM





Saul Sternberg (1967)
Memorize a set of
numbers (6,3,8,2,7)
Shown a probe digit
Participant must
indicate if the probe
was in the set
Reaction time to
respond is measured
2
6,3,8,2,7
Yes
Sternberg (1967)

3 critical factors manipulated
 How
many items were in the set the
participants had to memorize
 Whether the probe was in the list
 The probe’s location in the set
Sternberg (1967)

Possible Result Patterns




A represents parallel
processing
B illustrates serial
processing
C illustrates exhaustive
serial processing
D illustrates selfterminating serial
processing
Sternberg’s Conclusion
A serial exhaustive model
 But….

 Corcoran
(1971) proposed that a parallel
model could also explain the pattern found
 Townsend (1971) stated it was mathematically
impossible to distinguish parallel from serial
 Thus, both models still exist
If You Do Not Retrieve from
LTM…
Has the memory disappeared?
or
 Is the memory still there but cannot
retrieve it (available, but not accessible)?

Evidence Supporting “Still There”
Theory Nelson (1971)
Paired associate List
43-house
67-dog
38-dress
77-sissors
Cued recall test
43- ________
67- ________
Two week delay
Subjects recalled 75% of
items on list
But focus was on 25% they
forgot.
Nelson (1971) Critical
Manipulation
If participants forgot “38-dress” and “77-sissors” then
participants relearned either same pairs or changed pairs
25%
“forgot”
Relearned
Results
Same
38-dress
77-sissors
38-dress
77-sissors
78%
Changed
38-dress
77-sissors
38-apple 77kettle
43%
The better performance of participants in the same
condition indicate that there was some memory left for
“forgotten” items. Otherwise both groups would remember
the same amount.
What Contributes to Forgetting?

Decay theory
 Memory

is weakened with disuse
Interference theory
 Proactive:
old memories interfere with recall
of new information
 Retroactive: new memories interfere with
recall of old information
Retroactive Interference from
LTM
Experiment
al group
Learn List A
Learn List B
Delay
Test for Memory
A
Control
group
Learn List A
------------
Delay
Test for Memory
A
The experimental group will remembers less material from
the tested list A compared to the control group
Information learned afterwards interferes with retrieval of
List A.
Proactive Interference from LTM
Experimental
group
Learn List A
Learn List B
Delay
Test for Memory B
Control
group
No study
Learn List B
Delay
Test for Memory B
The experimental group remembers less material from the
tested list B than the control group
Information previously learned (list A) interferes with
retrieval of List B
Your Cheatin’ Heart
Damn that
Proactive
interference!
Using a similar scenario, what
would retroactive interference
look like?
Melissa?!
Who’s
Melissa?!
Flashbulb Memories
Some researchers propose that
events that are particularly
surprising or arousing will yield
flashbulb memories
 Where were you when the…

 Challenger
explosion occurred?
 OJ verdict was read?
 JFK was assassinated?
 Bombing of the twin towers?
Flashbulb Memories

Some research proposes good memory for
 Place where you learned of information
 What you were doing when you heard it
 Where you heard the information
 Emotions in self and others
 The aftermath
from
Emotion and Memory

There is a strong relationship (.90) between
the emotionality and vividness of memory
 This
does not mean that the memory is
accurate

Emotional events seem to be less resistant
to forgetting over time…
 Perhaps
they are perceived better
 Perhaps we think about them more
Flashbulb Memory Results
Neisser and Harsch (1992)
 Tested
immediate memory for
Shuttle Explosion, and then
tested it again 3 years later
 There was little agreement
with the two “memories”
despite the confidence of the
participants
Encoding Specificity

Memory is improved when information
available at encoding is also available at
retrieval
Encoding Specificity

Tulving (1983)
 People
encode the context with the target
material
Physical match (class, diving, smell)
 Emotional match (happy, depressed)
 Understanding match (childhood amnesia,
under the influence of drugs match)

State Dependent Learning
Deep Sea Divers
40
% Correct Recall
36
32
Learn on Land
Learn UnderWater
28
24
20
Land
UnderWater
Recall
State Dependent Learning
Hypnotic Mood & Memory
90
% Retention
80
70
Learn Sad
Learn Happy
60
50
40
Happy
Sad
Recall Mood
State Dependent Learning
Drunk vs. Sober
5
Learn Sober
Learn Drunk
% Errors
4
3
2
1
Sober
Drunk
Recall
State Dependent learning, why
is it important?

Content addressable memory

Partial information helps in retrieval

Adaptive function of memory

Most relevant memories are most
accessible
Owens, Bower and Black
(1979)
Nancy arrived at the cocktail party. She looked around the room to see who was
there. She went to talk with her professor. She felt she had to talk to him but
was a little nervous about just what to say. A group of people started to play
charades. Nancy went over and had some refreshments. The hors d’oevres
were good but she was interested in talking to the rest of the people at the party.
After a while, she decided she’d had enough and left the party.
Some participants also heard that passage, but w/ this theme:
Nancy woke up feeling sick and she wondered if she really were pregnant. How
could she tell the professor she had been seeing? And the money was another
problem.
Participants were then asked to recall as much about the story as
they could
Owens, Bower and Black (1979)
Results
Theme
No Theme
Studied Propositions
29.2
20.3
Inferred Propositions
15.2
3.7
The “theme” offered some background information and
some retrieval cues, which increased recall.
However, the background info also led to more intrusions
(memory for information not present), such as “The
professor got Nancy pregnant.”
The 7 Sins of Memory
Daniel Schacter
Transience
 Absent Mindedness
 Blocking
 Misattribution
 Suggestibility
 Bias
 Persistence

Seven Sins of Memory
1) Transience
- The tendency to lose
access to information
across time, whether
through forgetting,
interference, or retrieval
failure
Transience
Occurs with all memory modalities
 Memory fades from the specific to the
general or gist
 Typical memories are overlaid
 Aberrant memories stand out
 Thanksgiving meal

What accounts for Transience?
•Shallow initial encoding
•Reduction in strength of
neural connections
•Retroactive interference
•Inappropriate retrieval
cues
How to mitigate transience
• Elaborate on incoming memories
• Multiple short exposures
• Keep a journal
• Seek unique experience
Seven Sins of Memory

2) Absent-mindedness Everyday memory failure in
remembering information and
intended activities, probably
caused by insufficient attention
or superficial, automatic
processing during encoding.
Absent Mindedness
Keys
 Weapon blindness
 Cell-phones and driving
 Pizza guy
 Mail letter
 Medicine

Why does it occur

Insufficient processing
 Secondary
task
Insufficient environmental cue
 Prospective Memory

 Event
based- When x happens y
 Time based- Do x at y time
How to counteract
Attend at encoding
 Use environmental cues

 Teapot
 Coffee
maker
 Stickies
Seven Sins of Memory

3) Blocking Temporary retrieval
failure or loss of
access, such as the
tip-of-the-tongue
state, in either
episodic or semantic
memory.
Pop Quiz! Name that word








Metal or metal-tipped spear used in a contest of distance throwing
Yarn-died cotton fabric woven in stripes, checks, plaids, or solid
colors.
Mild or hot, red condiment often used on deviled eggs
Inscription on a tomb
Incombustible, chemical-resistant, material used for fireproofing
Navigational instrument used for measuring the angular elevation of
the sun or a star above the horizon
Heavy, broad-bladed knife or hatchet used especially by butchers
Crystalline sugar occurring naturally in fruits, honey, etc.
Blocking
Most common with names or abstract
obscure words
 Can often remember

 Gender
(Spanish, Italian, French etc.)
 First and Last letters
 Syllables
 Ugly stepsister

Forget it!
Seven Sins of Memory

4) Misattribution
Remembering a
fact correctly
from past
experience but
attributing it to
an incorrect
source of context.
She looks
familiar, but
how do I
know her...?
Misattribution





John Doe 1 and John Doe 2
Elliot’s body shop, Junction
City, Kansas
“Robert Kling” AKA Timothy
McVeigh
1 day later
Army Sereant Michael
Hertig and Private Todd
Bunting
Seven Sins of Memory

5) Suggestibility - The tendency to
incorporate information provided
by others into your own
recollection and memory
representation.
Eyewitness testimony

Loftus -- subjects watched a video of a car accident
and then were asked “how fast was the car going
when it”

Smashed
Collided
Bumped
Hit
Contacted




40.8
39.3
38.1
34.0
31.8
Eyewitness testimony

Leading questions may bias the estimates

The questions may literally change the way
people remember the event

Exp 2: Subjects saw the video and were
asked “Smashed” or “hit”
Smashed est'd mph > Hit estd mph
Eyewitness testimony

1 Week subjects were later asked “did you see any
broken glass”?

Most answered “no” correctly, but
32% said yes if asked “Smashed”
14% said yes if asked “hit”
12% said yes in control group

The memory of the video and the question were fused
together into one memory
Eyewitness testimony

As time increased the memory was integrated so that
subjects couldn’t distinguish the event from effects of
questioning

Typical eyewitness testimony:



Occurs after long interval from event
After repeated questioning
After repeated retellings
Eyewitness testimony

How reliable is eyewitness testimony?

Difficult to know for sure, but people can’t
distinguish between “real events” and
“reconstructed memories”

Implications for “recovered memories” &
legal system

Should eyewitness testimony by itself be
considered sufficient to establish guilt?
Seven Sins of Memory

6) Bias - The tendency
for knowledge, beliefs,
and feelings to distort
recollection of
previous experiences
and to affect current
and future judgments
and memory.
Schemata

What we have experienced effects what will experience

Stored framework or body of knowledge

Aids interpretation

Biased information processing to relate new material to what we
already know

Alters way we perceive things

Individual differences in perception and memory
Reproductive vs. Reconstructive

Reproductive memory -- verbatim reproduction of
information

Reconstructive memory -- we remember by combining
the original material with existing schemata

If you hear a speech and later tell someone what was
said, can you report “verbatim” what was said?
Reconstructive Memory

Omissions - loss of information in recall due to
schemata; often specific, important details are
missing

Rationalize or Normalize - tendency to add
material to make recall more reasonable
 fill in missing pieces
 often fill in with correct info, but may fill in faulty
info
 Split brain research
Seven Sins of Memory

7) Persistence - the
tendency to remember
facts or events, including
traumatic memories, that
one would rather forget,
that is, failure to forget
because of intrusive
recollections and
rumination.
Persistence
“Hot” Memories- charged with
emotion
 Positive and Negative intrusions
 Amygdala
 Norepinepherine-Yohimbine!

Vices or Virtues?
Transience
 Absent Mindedness
 Blocking
 Misattribution
 Suggestibility
 Bias
 Persistence

The 7 Sins of Memory
Daniel Schacter
Transience
 Absent Mindedness
 Blocking
 Misattribution
 Suggestibility
 Bias
 Persistence
