Emma Berry
Dr. Caroline Breashears
ENG 347B: The Gothic Novel
March 19, 2014
Understanding the Literary Context of Horace Walpole’s The Castle of Otranto: The Influence
of Amatory Fiction
Horace Walpole’s The Castle of Otranto is often claimed to be the first Gothic novel
published. Released in 1764, Walpole’s work launched a new literary genre and represents an
influential text of the eighteenth century. However, which—if any—texts influenced Walpole?
While much scholarship has been written on the subsequent Gothic works that followed
Walpole’s, very little has explored the literary context in which The Castle of Otranto was
written. Just as knowledge of the concerns and themes in Walpole’s novel is necessary to fully
understand later Gothic works, it is equally necessary to have an awareness of the genres or texts
that may have influenced Walpole in order to better understand The Castle of Otranto. This essay
will explore one such genre that preceded the publication of Walpole’s novel. Emerging in the
late seventeenth and early eighteenth century—notably through the works of Aphra Behn (16401689), Delarivier Manley (1663-1724), and Eliza Haywood (1693-1756)—amatory fiction
represents a genre of writing to which Walpole could have been exposed, and perhaps influenced
by. Following a brief examination of the conventions of both amatory fiction and the Gothic
genre, this essay will demonstrate how the inclusion of certain themes and characters in The
Castle of Otranto, as well as various cover images, suggest Walpole was indeed influenced by
amatory fiction.
Berry 2
Although amatory fiction predates Walpole’s work, little scholarship has been written
which considers the two together. This lack of scholarship is perhaps a result of the contested
status of amatory fiction in the literary world. In her essay “Sex, Lies and Invisibility: Amatory
Fiction from the Restoration to Mid-Century,” Toni Bowers addresses this issue, suggesting,
“Today…amatory fictions tend to be virtually invisible in traditional accounts of literary history,
briefly noticed as primitive and inconsequential progenitors of ‘the’ novel” (Bowers 50).
Although dismissed by most modern scholars as not even constituting a genre, Bowers opposes
this, and notes, “many amatory fictions do share certain thematic concerns, social functions, and
historical positions” (Bowers 50-51). As its name would suggest, amatory fiction is primarily
concerned with sexual love and desire, and includes themes of seduction, loss of innocence, rape,
bigamy, incest and murder.
When considering traditional Gothic conventions, Walpole’s work is often cited given
that The Castle of Otranto is heralded as the first novel to be characterized as “Gothic.” Elena
Maria Emandi speaks to this in her essay, “Early Gothic Fiction in English Literature” when she
states, “Horace Walpole’s novel presents many of the features that came to define a new genre of
fiction, such as the feudal historical and architectural setting, the deposed noble heir and the
ghostly, supernatural machinations” (Emandi 83). In addition to those identified by Emandi,
other common Gothic themes include: the taboo, the dysfunctional family, the sublime, religion,
terror and horror. Along with these themes, Walpole’s work also helped to establish the character
archetypes of the Gothic genre, which, according to Emandi, include “the tyrant (Manfred), the
prince disguised as a peasant (Theodore), and the consciously innocent heroine (Matilda and/ or
Isabella)” (Emandi 86).
Berry 3
At first glance, the conventions and themes of amatory fiction and the Gothic genre seem
to have little in common. On the one hand, you have scandalous stories of sexual desire and
romance, and on the other, you have mysterious tales of horror and the supernatural. Walpole’s
The Castle of Otranto is clearly divergent from the amatory fictions of Behn, Manley and
Haywood; however, upon closer analysis, similarities between the two can still be found.
Most notable of the similarities between amatory fiction and The Castle of Otranto is the
inclusion of, and emphasis on, the taboo. While the taboo represents one of many themes that
would become associated with the Gothic genre, at the time Walpole was writing, this
convention did not yet exist. Therefore, what was his impetus for integrating such scandalous
elements into his story? Could he perhaps have read one of Behn, Manley, or Haywood’s works
and been compelled to include a similar plot line or thematic concern? Thriving on scandal,
amatory fiction plots were driven by the taboo. Meant to both shock and warn the reader,
amatory fictions often included socially prohibited customs such as premarital sex, rape, incest,
and bigamy. This is evident when considering Bowers’s description of the genre’s archetypal
plot:
In amatory writing’s most typical plot, an innocent young girl is seduced by an
experienced, older man who promises her everlasting love but abandons her
ruthlessly once his physical desires have been sated. Often the perfidious male is
married already; usually he is of aristocratic birth; frequently he is the young
woman’s relative or guardian, a circumstance that makes his behavior even more
shocking, puts her in a most defenseless and victimized position, and allows for
titillating suggestions of incest (Bowers 51-52).
Berry 4
When comparing this description to plot elements found in The Castle of Otranto, obvious
connections can be made, particularly when considering Manfred’s pursuit of Isabella.
Although a minor incident within the overall novel, Manfred’s declaration of affection
and subsequent pursuit of Isabella represents the most notable instance of amatory fiction’s
potential influence on Walpole. Following the death of his son Conrad, the man to whom
Isabella was betrothed, Manfred declares:
In short, lady, you have missed a husband undeserving of your charms: they shall
now be better disposed of. Instead of a sickly boy, you shall have a husband in the
prime of his age, who will know how to value your beauties, and who may expect
numerous offspring (Walpole 25).
In this scene, Isabella clearly resembles the innocent young girl described by Bowers, who is
being seduced by Manfred, the experienced, older man. While this connection could be
dismissed as simply a coincidence, further similarities suggest otherwise. Already married to
Hippolita, claiming aristocracy as the Prince of Otranto, and acting as Isabella’s guardian while
she is betrothed to his son, Manfred fulfills all of the elements Bowers cites when describing the
perfidious male typical of amatory fictions. While Walpole does not actually follow through with
Manfred’s seduction/conquest of Isabella since she is able to escape through the subterraneous
passage, this exchange suggests both the premise of rape and the premise of incest. The inclusion
of such taboos, even though only alluded to, suggests Walpole may have been influenced by the
scandalous themes common in amatory fiction.
In addition to the taboo, similarities can be found between amatory fiction and The
Castle of Otranto when considering characters. Given Bowers’s description of amatory fiction’s
typical plot, inherent to the genre is a female protagonist who is young and innocent. In Aphra
Berry 5
Behn’s The History of the Nun: or, The Fair Vow-breaker (1689) for instance, the heroine,
Isabella, is depicted as the epitome of innocence:
Her conduct and discretion appeared equal to her wit and beauty, and she
increased daily in reputation, insomuch, that the parents of abundance of young
noblemen made it their business to endeavor to marry their sons to so admirable
and noble a maid, and one, whose virtues were the discourse of all the world
(Behn 8).
This description is not so dissimilar from the characteristics of Walpole’s Matilda, who is
described as “a most beautiful virgin, aged eighteen”(Walpole 17). Throughout the novel, the
reader also learns that Matilda is dutiful, religious and has been offered numerous proposals of
marriage (Walpole 40). While the characteristics of Behn’s heroine are similar to those of
Walpole’s Matilda, it is additionally noteworthy that Behn’s protagonist is named Isabella. This
is also the name of a prominent character in The Castle of Otranto, who, although not quite as
explicitly described as Matilda, is clearly also meant to represent an innocent, young heroine. 1
While this similarity in name could again simply be a coincidence, when coupled with all of the
other parallels, it suggests a compelling basis for analyzing amatory fiction’s influence on
Walpole’s novel, and particularly his character development.
In addition to an innocent, young heroine, amatory fiction’s typical plot also calls for a
villainous rake, who often times, victimizes said heroine. In The Wife’s Resentment (1720),
Delarivier Manley offers one such male aggressor named Roderigo, who is described as the
debauching womanizer typical of amatory fiction, “designing only to conquer, not to be
conquered; for as yet all women were equally indifferent to him” (Manley 143). While Manfred
is not quite as severe of a character as Roderigo, his pursuit and victimization of Isabella
1
As argued by Emandi, page 2.
Berry 6
suggests a desire to conquer her. In addition to conquest, further parallels can be seen between
Manley’s rake and Walpole’s tyrant, particularly when considering that both men engage in
bigamy. Roderigo does so when he marries another woman of a higher social class despite
having already married Manley’s heroine, Violenta, and Manfred attempts to do so when he
declares his desire to marry Isabella to secure the Otranto lineage despite being already married
to Hippolita. Interestingly, both men are compelled to take on a second wife for maintenance of
social status. As with the similarities among the female characters of amatory fiction and The
Castle of Otranto, these parallels between Manfred and the typical amatory rake support the
notion that Walpole may have been influenced by the earlier genre.
In addition to the taboo and similarity in characters, amatory fiction’s potential influence
on Walpole is also hinted at in some of the cover images that have appeared throughout the years
as various editions of The Castle of Otranto have been published.
Figure 1 (1800 J.F. Dove)
Figure 2 (2001 Penguin Classics)
Figure 3 (2002 Penguin Classics)
Figure 4 (2010 Di Learnia)
As stated earlier, the taboo represents just one of many themes often associated with the Gothic.
In Walpole’s novel, the taboo manifests most noticeably when Manfred pursues Isabella,
suggesting the possibility of rape, and alluding to both incest and bigamy. When presented
alongside supernatural and terror inducing incidents, such as falling helmets, giant hands and
phantoms, this exchange between Manfred and Isabella seems almost insignificant in comparison
Berry 7
to the grander, more exciting Gothic elements in the novel. If this is the case, then why have
numerous cover images (Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4) depicted the victimhood of a woman —
presumably Isabella—in favor of something more overtly Gothic, such as the giant helmet or a
castle?
Figure 5 (1963 Rinehart)
Figure 6 (2007 Dodo Press)
While more traditionally Gothic cover images have indeed been published (Figures 5 and 6), the
existence of those depicting a distressed woman elevates this somewhat brief incident in the
novel. Since one of the most basic elements of amatory fiction involves an innocent female being
victimized, these particular cover images suggest a prominent parallel between Walpole’s work
and amatory fiction. Although most of the editions cited here were published in the last decade,
as evidenced by Figure 1, published in 1800, some eighteenth century editions also had similar
illustrations. Therefore, perhaps these cover images do indicate that the themes of amatory
fiction did indeed influence Walpole when he was writing The Castle of Otranto.
While the major Gothic themes of The Castle of Otranto clearly distinguish Walpole’s
work apart from amatory fiction, the overwhelming similarities concerning the taboo and
characters, as well as the compelling cover images, suggest some sort of connection between the
two. Although Walpole is credited for launching a new genre—since many of the features
Berry 8
included in The Castle of Otranto became Gothic conventions—credit must be given where
credit is due. A generation before Walpole, Behn, Manley and Haywood had already written
stories of pursued heroines, aggressive men, rape, incest, bigamy, and all of the socially
prohibited taboos that made for a titillating read. While Walpole clearly expanded the focus of
his text to include multiple thematic concerns and further plot development, the presence of
certain themes and characters in The Castle of Otranto strongly suggest he was influenced by
amatory fiction.
Berry 9
Works Cited
Primary Sources
Behn, Aphra. The History of the Nun; or, The Fair Vow-breaker. 1689. Popular Fiction by
Women 1660-1730: An Anthology. Eds. Paula R. Backscheider & John J. Richetti.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996. 1-42. Print.
Manley, Delarivier. The Wife’s Resentment. 1720. The Meridian Anthology of Early Women
Writers: British Literary Women from Aphra Behn to Maria Edgeworth, 1660-1800. Eds.
Katharine M. Rogers & William McCarthy. New York: Meridian, 1987. 142-170. Print.
Walpole, Horace. The Castle of Otranto. Oxford. Oxford University Press, 1996. Print.
Secondary Sources
Bowers, Toni. “Sex, Lies, and Invisibility: Amatory Fiction from the Restoration to MidCentury.” The Columbia History of the British Novel. Ed. John Richetti. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1994. 50-72.
Emandi, Elena Marie. “Early Gothic Fiction in English Literature.” The scientific Journal of
Humanistic Studies 5. 9 (2013): 82-86. Academic Search Complete. Web. 1 Feb. 2014.
Relevant Images
Figure 1: Castle of Otranto Cover Image. Illustration. 1800. The Castle of Otranto: A Gothic
Story. Open Library. Web. 17 March 2014.
https://openlibrary.org/works/OL183741W/The_Castle_of_Otranto
Figure 2: Castle of Otranto Cover Image. Illustration. 2001. The Castle of Otranto. Agony
Column Review. Web. 17 March 2014.
http://trashotron.com/agony/reviews/2003/walpole-castle_of_otranto.htm
Figure 3: Castle of Otranto Cover Image. Illustration. 2002. The Castle of Otranto. Powell’s
Berry 10
Books. Web. 17 March 2014. http://www.powells.com/biblio/9780140437676
Figure 4: Castle of Otranto Cover Image. Illustration. 2010. The Castle of Otranto. Amazon.
Web. 17 March 2014. http://www.amazon.com/Castle-Otranto-Annotated-HoraceWalpole-ebook/dp/B003ZSHQEM
Figure 5: Castle of Otranto Cover Image. Illustration.1963. The Castle of Otranto, Mysteries of
Udolpho, Northanger Abbey. Amazon. Web. 17 March 2014.
http://www.amazon.com/Otranto-Mysteries-Udolpho-abridgedNorthhanger/dp/B001AOZ780
Figure 6: Castle of Otranto Cover Image. IIllustration. 2007. The Castle of Otranto. Open
Library. Web. 17 March 2014.
https://openlibrary.org/books/OL11678464M/The_Castle_of_Otranto_(Dodo_Press)