Public Speaking: An Audience-Centered Approach – 7th

Public Speaking:

An Audience-Centered Approach – 7 th edition

Chapter 17

Using

Persuasive

Strategies

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Steven A. Beebe & Susan J. Beebe

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009


“Speech is power:

Speech is to persuade, to convert, to compel.”

- Ralph Waldo Emerson

Persuasion

“…is the process of adjusting ideas to people and people to ideas.”

- Donald C. Bryant, rhetoric scholar


Establishing Credibility

•

Also known as ethos.

•

Audience’s perceptions of the speaker.

•

Various dimensions:



Competence- knowledge & skill.



Trustworthiness- believability & honesty.



Dynamism- energy level.



Charisma- charm, talent & magnetism.


Enhancing Your Credibility

•

Credibility established in three places:



Initial credibility: perceptions before speech.



Derived credibility: impressions formed during speech.



Terminal credibility: final impressions, after speech.

•

Ways to boost credibility:



Well-stressed values and concerns shared with audience.



Well-documented evidence.



Well-organized ideas.



Well-managed delivery.


Using Logic and Evidence to Persuade

•

Logos: formal system of rules to reach a conclusion.

•

Aristotle: “always prove what you state.”

•

Reasoning: drawing a conclusion from the evidence.


Understanding Types of Reasoning

•

Inductive Reasoning.

•

Deductive Reasoning.

•

Causal Reasoning.



Inductive Reasoning

•

Using specific examples or instances to reach a general or probable conclusion.

•

Used when one can claim that an outcome is probably true because of specific evidence.



Testing the Validity of

Inductive Reasoning

•

Are there enough specific instances to support the conclusion?

•

Are the specific instances typical?

•

Are the instances recent?



Inductive Reasoning: an example

I. Students are sneezing in dorms & classrooms.

(specific example 1)

II. Professors are cancelling classes.

(specific example 2)

III. Campus Clinic has long waiting lines.

( specific example 3)

IV. There must be a flu on our campus.

(general conclusion)



Reasoning by Analogy

(a special type of inductive reasoning)

•

Makes a comparison between two things, entities, processes, etc.

•

If you conclude what is true for one can be true for the other, then the analog is strong.




Reasoning by Analogy

•

Are similarities between both, greater than differences?

•

Is the conclusion being drawn actually true?



Deductive Reasoning

•

Opposite of induction.

•

Conclusion (generalization) is more certain than probable.

•

The more valid or truthful the outcome, the more certain the conclusion.

•

Start with widely accepted general claim, and then move towards specific conclusion illustrating general claim.



Structure of Deductive Reasoning

•

Syllogism – three-part argument:



Major Premise: widely accepted general statement.



Minor Premise: specific statement that applies to the major premise.



Conclusion: logical outcome, minor premise exemplifies major premise.

•

The more valid the major premise, the more valid the deduction.




Deductive Reasoning

•

Is major premise

(general statement) true?

•

Is minor premise

(specific instance) true?



Deductive Reasoning: an example

I.

All tough drug laws introduced in mediumsized communities result in diminished drug-related crimes.

(generally accepted statement)

II. San Marcos, Texas is a medium-sized community. (specific case supporting general statement)

III. San Marcos should institute tough drug laws. ( specific conclusion)



Causal Reasoning

•

Relating events to show connection.

•

To conclude that one or more events caused another event.

•

Can move from cause to effect.

•

Can move from effect to cause.



Causal Reasoning: an example

Cause to effect Effect to cause

I.

Interest rates have increased this week.

I.

A major earthquake has occurred.

II.

The Dow Jones will decrease.

(from a known fact to a predicted result)

II.

The cause was a shift in a fault line.

(from a known result to a predicted cause)


Persuading the Diverse Audience

•

Effectiveness depends on listeners’ background and cultural expectations.

•

Some cultures prefer deduction; other cultures prefer induction.

•

Use evidence that audience will see as valid and reliable.

•

Use appropriate appeals to action, based on cultural norms.

•

Use messages appropriate for audience.

•

Use delivery that listeners find appropriate.


Supporting Your Reasoning

•

Use facts.

with Evidence

•

Use valid true examples.

•

Use opinions that enhance credibility.

•

Use sound & reliable statistics.

•

Use reluctant testimony: shows that someone has been convinced.

•

Use new & specific evidence.

•

Use evidence to tell a story.


Avoid Faulty Reasoning

•

Be ethical & appropriate with evidence & reasoning.

•

Fallacy: false reasoning when someone attempts to persuade without adequate evidence, or with arguments that are irrelevant or inappropriate.



Reasoning Fallacies

Causal “Hurricanes are caused by war”

Hasty

Generalization

(a connection not related)

Bandwagon “Everyone knows cell phones are safe” (popularity appeals)

Either-Or “Either you’re with us or you’re against us” (only 2 choices)

“Since my niece is failing, city schools are bad” (quick

Conclusion)



Reasoning Fallacies

Ad “What does a divorced man know

Hominem about parenting?” (personal attack)

Red

Herring

Misplaced

Authority

Non

Sequitur

“Let’s not focus on the lawsuit against me; let’s talk about…”

(changing the topic to distract)

“Jessica Simpson says McMillan trucks are best” (not a true expert)

“Support me for Congress – I have 3 children” (ideas do not follow)


Using Emotion to Persuade

•

Can make people feel pleasure or displeasure.

•

Can make people feel more aroused.

•

Can make people feel dominance.


Tips for Using Emotion to

Persuade

•

Use details that help listeners visualize.

•

Use emotion-arousing words

(“freedom,” “9-11,” “mommy.”)

•

Delivery should reflect emotions.

•

Use pictures or images.


Tips for Using Emotion to

Persuade

•

Use appropriate metaphors & similes.

•

Use right amount of fear appeals.

•

Appeal to several emotions.

•

Appeal to audience members’ myths.

Myth: not necessarily false, but a belief of how people view their world.

(e.g., Old West pioneers: strong & adventurous)

•

Avoid unethical emotional appeals & appeals to listeners’ prejudices (demagoguery).


Adapting Ideas to People and People to Ideas

Persuading the receptive audience.

•

Identify with them.

•

Clearly state your objectivity.

•

Tell them exactly what you want them to do.

•

Ask them for an immediate show of support.

•

Use emotional appeals effectively.

•

Make it easy for them to take action.



Persuading the neutral audience.

•

Capture their attention early.

•

Stress commonly shared beliefs.

•

Relate topic to them, their friends, families and loved ones.

•

Be realistic with the response you want.



Persuading the unreceptive audience.

•

Wait before telling them your purpose.

•

Start with noting areas of agreement.

•

Set realistic goals.

•

Acknowledge how they might oppose you.

•

Clearly tell them any experiences you have.



Persuading the unreceptive audience.

•

Consider understanding (not advocacy) as your goal.



Summarize common misconceptions people have.



State why misconceptions may seem reasonable.



Dismiss misconceptions, and provide evidence to support your point.



State accurate information you want them to remember.


Strategies for Organizing

Persuasive Messages

•

State your strongest arguments first.

•

Do not bury key arguments in the middle.

•

Save action calls for the end.

•

Consider presenting both sides of an issue.

•

State and refute counterarguments.


Strategies for Organizing

Persuasive Messages

Organizational Patterns

•

Problem – Solution.

•

Refutation.

•

Cause and Effect.

•

Motivated Sequence.



Attention.



Need.



Satisfaction.



Visualization.



Action.


Public Speaking: An Audience-Centered Approach – 7th

Public Speaking:

“…is the process of adjusting ideas to people and people to ideas.”

- Donald C. Bryant, rhetoric scholar

•

Inductive Reasoning

Testing the Validity of

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning: an example

Reasoning by Analogy

(a special type of inductive reasoning)

Testing the Validity of

Reasoning by Analogy

Deductive Reasoning

Structure of Deductive Reasoning

Testing the Validity of

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning: an example

Causal Reasoning

Causal Reasoning: an example

Reasoning Fallacies

Reasoning Fallacies

•

Persuading the receptive audience.

Persuading the neutral audience.

Persuading the unreceptive audience.

Persuading the unreceptive audience.

Organizational Patterns

Related documents

Products

Support

Public Speaking: An Audience-Centered Approach – 7th

Public Speaking:

“…is the process of adjusting ideas to people and people to ideas.”

- Donald C. Bryant, rhetoric scholar

•

Inductive Reasoning

Testing the Validity of

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning: an example

Reasoning by Analogy

(a special type of inductive reasoning)

Testing the Validity of

Reasoning by Analogy

Deductive Reasoning

Structure of Deductive Reasoning

Testing the Validity of

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning: an example

Causal Reasoning

Causal Reasoning: an example

Reasoning Fallacies

Reasoning Fallacies

•

Persuading the receptive audience.

Persuading the neutral audience.

Persuading the unreceptive audience.

Persuading the unreceptive audience.

Organizational Patterns

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