APA Style
Research Methods
RCS 6740/PHC 6700
January 24, 2006
Why Use APA Style?




Allows readers to crossreference your sources
easily
Provides consistent
format within a discipline
Gives you credibility as a
writer
Protects you from
plagiarism
Cross-Referencing Your Sources
Cross-referencing allows readers to locate the
publication information of source material.
This is of great value for researchers who may
want to locate your sources for their own
research projects.
“Because one purpose of listing references is to
enable readers to retrieve and use the sources,
reference data must be correct and complete.
…” (APA, 2001, p. 216).
Using a Consistent Format
Using a consistent format helps
your reader understand your
arguments and the sources
they’re built on.
It also helps you keep track of your
sources as you build arguments.
32 APA primary journals; as many
as 1000 more in social sciences
and psychology use APA as
their style guide.
Establishing Credibility
The proper use of APA style shows the
credibility of writers; such writers show
accountability to their source material.
“[Because] authors are responsible for all
information in their reference lists.
Accurately prepared references help establish
your credibility as a careful researcher” (APA,
2001, p. 216).
Avoiding Plagiarism

Academic honesty and integrity!


Proper citation of your sources in APA style can help you
avoid plagiarism, which is a serious offense. It may result
in anything from failure of the assignment to expulsion
from school.
You are academically dishonest if:





Someone writes your paper for you
You purchase a paper
You copy a paper from online
You fail to cite your sources
Your present someone else’s ideas as your own
Quick Background of the Publication Manual
of the American Psychological Association


1928: Meeting of editors of anthropological and
psychological journals.
February 1929: 7 page article in Psychological
Bulletin.




Just recommended a standard procedure – did not dictate
the style to authors.
1952: 1st edition – 60 page supplement to
Psychological Bulletin.
1974: 2nd edition – 136 pages
2001: 5th edition - 439 pages
APA Style




Content & Organization of a Manuscript
Expressing Ideas & Reducing Bias in
Language
Editorial Style
Reference List
Content & Organization

Parts of a Manuscript










Title Page
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
Multiple Experiments
References
Appendix
Author Note
Title Page





Title (centered, upper ½ of page, ds)
Author’s name (1 ds below title)
Institutional affiliation or course identification
(ds below author’s name)
Manuscript page header (upper right corner,
1st 2 or 3 words of title, 5 spaces, then page #)
Running head
Disability Attitudes
Running head: DISABILITY ATTITUDES IMPLICIT ASSOCIATION TEST
The Development and Psychometric Validation of
the Disability Attitudes Implicit Association Test
Steven R. Pruett
University of Florida
1
Running Head




Abbreviated title
Maximum 50 characters including letters,
punctuation, and spaces
Left-justified below manuscript page header
Example:
Running head: GENERATION X
Abstract







Brief comprehensive summary
75-120 words
Concise
Self-contained
Non-evaluative
Coherent
Readable
Note: Manual has specific guidelines for empirical studies, reviews
and theoretical pieces, methodological works, and case studies.
Example
Abstract
Objectives: Develop and validate the Disability Attitude Implicit Association Test (DA-IAT). Participants: Two hundred twenty three
rehabilitation counseling students. Outcome Measures: DA-IAT, Attitude Toward Disabled Persons Scale (ATDP), Marlowe-Crowne
Social Desirability Scale, Collett-Lester Fear of Death Scale, Internal and External Motivation to Respond without Prejudice Toward
People with Disabilities Scales, Contact with Disabled Persons Scale, and Demographics. Results: DA-IAT congruent associations
(disability+negative/non-disabled+positive) occurred more frequently than incongruent associations (disability+positive/nondisabled+negative). DA-IAT had no relationship with ATDP, an explicit attitude measure. Demographics did not predict DA-IAT scores.
Contact with Disabled Persons Scale was the dominant predictor for the DA-IAT. Conclusions: The DA-IAT has potential of becoming
a useful measure of implicit group disability attitudes based on experience versus belief.
[Abstract=117 words]
Keywords: Attitudes Measurement, Disabled (Attitude Towards), Psychosocial Factors, Demographics, Student Attitudes
First Page of Text



Includes manuscript page header
Full title is centered on the top line of the
page
DS, only, between title and first line of text
Note. Double space, only, throughout the entire document.
Headings




The levels of heading are established by format or
appearance
The hierarchy of sections help orient the reader to
the structure of the manuscript – they function as an
outline
Topics of equal importance have the same level of
heading throughout the manuscript.
Start each section with the highest level of heading,
even if one section may have fewer levels of
subheading than another section
Headings - Continued
CENTERED UPPERCASE HEADING
(Level 5)
Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
(Level 1)
Centered, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
(Level 2)
Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Side Heading
(Level 3)
Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending
with a period.
(Level 4)
One Level Heading
Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
(Level 1)
Engagement
Assessment
Planning
Implementation
Evaluation
Two levels (use level 1 & 3)
Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
(Level 1)
Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Side Heading
(Level 3)
Engagement
Techniques
Orientation of Client
Three levels (Use level 1, 3 and 4)
Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
(Level 1)
Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Side Heading
(Level 3)
Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period. (Level 4)
Assessment
Development
Early childhood.
Adolescent.
Handling Quotes in Your Text



If directly quoted from another
author’s work should be
reproduced word for word
Short quotations (fewer than 40
words) are incorporated into the
text, enclosed with double
quotation marks.
Must be accompanied by a
reference citation with a page
number
Example of a Short Quotation
Matkin (1985) stated “the compensation
principle and accident prevention form an
intertwined relationship whereby one
enhances the other” (p. 29).
 At end of sentence – close quoted passage
with quotation marks, cite the source in
parentheses after marks, and end with the
period or other punctuation outside the final
parenthesis.
Example of Mid-Sentence Quote
He found “Assessment or decision-making
interviews are generally more focused”
(Zastrow, 1998, p. 86) than other types
of interview formats.


In midsentence - End the passage with quotation
marks, cite source in parentheses immediately after
the quotation marks, and continue the sentence.
Use no other punctuation unless meaning of sentence
requires it.
Example of Long Quote
Wang, Thomas, Chan, and Cheing (2003) stated the following:
Conjoint analysis has the potential to augment the study of attitudes
toward disabilities in rehabilitation psychology research. Specifically, as
an indirect measurement, conjoint analysis is less prone to social
desirability effects. The trade-off method used in conjoint analysis to
study people’s attitudes toward disability closely approximates human
decision making in real life. Hence both conjoint measurements and
conjoint analysis could increase the ability of rehabilitation psychology
researchers to understand factors contributing to the formation of
attitudes/preferences in multiple social contexts. (p. 200-201)


At end of block quote – Cite the quoted source in parentheses after the
final punctuation mark
Do not single space long quotes. Indent 5-7 spaces from the left margin
without the usual paragraph indent.
Numbers

General rule is to use figures to express numbers
10 and above
The client is 25 years old
Mr. Roberts has had 12 arrests

Use words to express numbers below 10
Nora Edwards has had three previous marriages.
Exceptions
Always as numerals: Dates, Ages, Exact sums of
money, scores and points on a scale, numbers and
precise measurements


Each item on the Beck Depression Index is scored on a 5point scale
The client receives $8 per completed hour.
Always as words: Any number that begins a sentence,
common fractions

Twelve participants were involved in the focus groups
Parenthetical (Within-Text)
Citations




Author’s(s’) last name
Year of publication
Page number (if quoting)
Example:
(Chan, 2000, p. 17)
Parenthetical Citations
Multiple Authors



2 authors – cite both names separated by &
Example:
(Rubin & Roessler, 2002, p. 127)
3-5 authors – cite all authors first time; after first
time, use et al.
Example:
(Chan et al., 2000)
6 or more authors – cite first author’s name and et al.
Example:
(Rosenthal et al., 1992)
Parenthetical Citations
Multiple Citations


Multiple sources from same author –
chronological order, separated by comma.
Example:
(Shaw, 1998, 1999, in press)
Within same year:
Example:
(Corrigan, 1998a, 1998b, 1999, in press)
Parenthetical Citations
Multiple Citations Continued

Multiple sources – separated by semicolon,
alphabetical order
Example:
(Chan, 1998; Pruett, 2001; Thomas, 1992)
Handling Parenthetical Citations

If the source has no
known author, then use
an abbreviated version
of the title:
Full Title: “California
Cigarette Tax Deters
Smokers”
Citation: (“California,”
1999)
Handling Parenthetical Citations


A reference to a personal
communication:
Source: email message from
Hanoch Livneh
Citation: (H. Livneh, personal
communication, November 22,
2002)
A general reference to a web site
Source: University of Florida
Citation: (http://www.ufl.edu)
Reference Citations in Text

If author(s) name is part of narrative, cite only year of
publication in parentheses
Hess, Marwitz and Kreutzer (2003) report treatment planning
following a spinal cord injury should include methods for
identifying cognitive deficits.
On rare occasions you may have the year and author with no
parentheses.
In 2000 Walker compared reaction times
Keys to Parenthetical Citations
Readability



Keep references brief
Give only information
needed to identify the
source on your
reference page
Do not repeat
unnecessary
information
Handling Quotes in Your Text
There are many different
combinations and
variations within APA
citation format.
If you run into something
unusual, look it up!
Tables and Figures



Tables are used for efficient presentation of a large amount of data in a small
amount of space.
Figures should augment vs. duplicate text, convey only essential facts, and
be clean and easy to read and understand.
Any type of illustration other than a table is called a figure.





Graphs (scatter, line, bar, pictorial or circle/pie)
Charts
Dot maps
Drawings
Photographs

Tables and Figures should be referred to in the text.
There are sample tables and figures in the APA text.

Next couple of slides



Sample ANOVA table from p. 162 of APA Manual
Sample Regression table from Pruett and Chan (in press)
Table X
Analysis of Variance for Classical Conditioning
Source
df
F
η
p
Between subjects
Anxiety (A)
2
0.76
.22
.48
Shock (S)
1
0.01
.02
.92
AXS
2
0.18
.11
.84
S within-group error
30
(16.48)
Within subjects
Blocks (B)
4
3.27**
.31
.01
B XA
8
0.93
.24
.49
BXS
4
2.64*
.28
.04
B XAXS
8
0.58
.19
.79
B X S within group error
120
(1.31)
Table X
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Psychosocial Variables Predicting ATDP - A scores (N = 223)
Variable
B
SE B
β
MCSDS Short Form
0.17
0.43
0.03
MCSDS Short Form
-0.04
0.44
-0.01
Fear of Death
-0.01
0.05
-0.07
IMS
0.14
0.27
0.04
EMS
-0.59
0.19
-0.23*
CDPS
0.12
0.09
0.10
Step 1
Step 2
Note. Step 1: R2 = .001 (p = ns), adjusted R2 = -.004; Step 2: ΔR2 = .089 (p < .01), adjusted R2 = .069. MCSDS = Marlowe-Crowne
Social Desirability Scale; IMS = Internal Motivation to Respond without Prejudice toward People with Disabilities scale; EMS =
External Motivation to Respond without Prejudice toward People with Disabilities scale; CDPS = Contact with Disabled Persons
Scale. *p < .01.
Reference List – General Guidelines







On a separate page
References (the title) is centered on
top line
Alphabetical list of works cited
If same author cited more than once,
chronologically listed
Double spaced
Hanging indent
Titles of works and volume number
in italics
Reference List – Journal Article



Garske, G. G. (2000). The significance of
rehabilitation counselor job satisfaction. Journal
of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 31(3),
10-13.
Shaw, L. R., & Tarvydas, V. M. (2001). The use of
professional disclosure in rehabilitation
counseling. Rehabilitation Counseling
Bulletin, 45, 40-47.
Miller, L. J., & Donders, J. (in press). Prediction of
educational outcome after pediatric traumatic
brain injury. Rehabilitation Psychology.
Reference List – Book



Smart, J. (2001). Disability, Society, and the
Individual. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.
Parker, R. M., & Szymanski, E. M. (Eds.). (1998).
Rehabilitation Counseling: Basics and
Beyond. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994).
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Reference List – Book Chapter

Jaet, D. N., & McMahon, B.T. (1999).
Implications of disability legislation for
case managers. In F. Chan & M. J. Leahy
(Eds.), Health Care and Disability Case
Management (pp. 213 – 238). Lake
Zurich, IL: Vocational Consultants Press.
Reference List: Electronic Media
Internet articles based on a print source (exact
replicate – usually a pdf file)
Smith, S., & Jones, T. (2001). The impact of authoritative
supervisors on job retention {Electronic version}.
Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 12(2),
110-112.
Internet articles that are not exactly as the printed
article (i.e., htlm, doc, or txt files)
Smith, S., & Jones, T. (2001). The impact of authoritative
supervisors on job retention. Journal of Applied
Rehabilitation Counseling, 12(2), 110-112. Retrieved
October 13, 2001, from http://jarc.org/articles
Reference List: Electronic Media
Articles in an Internet only journal
James, T. (2001, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to
optimize health and well-being. Prevention &
Treatment, 3, Article 01a. Retrieved November 20, 2000,
from http://journals.apa.org/articles
Stand alone document, no author identified, no date.
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (n.d.). Retrieved
August 8, 2000, from http://www.ahrq.gov
APA Writing Style Rules:
Abbreviations




Avoid abbreviations except for long familiar
terms (MMPI).
Explain what the abbreviation means at the
first occurrence: American Psychological
Association (APA).
If an abbreviation is commonly used as a
word, it does not require explanation (IQ,
LSD, RAM).
Use two-letter postal codes for U.S. state
names.
Language Exerts a Powerful
Influence
Avoiding Biased and Pejorative
Language

Be more specific, not less





Use age ranges rather than broad categories
Use the phrase Men and women – rather than generic
“mankind”
Avoid the generic “he”
Specific ethnic or racial labeling
Mention differences only when relevant
Be Sensitive to Labels

Use person-first
language when
describing and
individual or group of
people with a
disability.
Example: people over the
age of 65, people with
learning disabilities
Standards of Comparison


Be aware of hidden standards that compare
the study group to an invisible (standard)
group.
Example: “culturally deprived” (by what
standard?)
Unparallel nouns
Example: man and wife - Instead: husband
and wife
Acknowledge Participation

Replace the impersonal term “subjects” with
- participants
- individuals
- college students
- children
Where Do I Find APA Style and
Format?

Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, 5th ed.


http://www.apastyle.org
Some other good links:
http://www.docstyles.com/apacrib.htm
http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddeg
elman/amoebaweb/index.aspx?doc_id
=2415
Software for APA Style

APA Style Helper 5 (available at APAStyle.org)






Walks you through a paper as you create it
Helps format references, headings etc
Includes a reference builder
Works with most word processors
From APA – costs $40
APAStyle.info (not an APA website) MS Word
Template for APA format


Headings and Format in APA style (no help with
references)
Free, only good with Microsoft Word.
 http://www.apastyle.info/template.shtml
Software for APA Style

Other Word Templates for purchase:



EazyPaper: http://www.eazypaper.com/
Reference point software: http://www.refpt.net/
Word referencing macros

Southern Ocean Software:
http://www.southernoceansoftware.com/apamacr
os/index.html
Software for APA Style

Citation Software






EndNote 9.0 (endnote.com)
ProCite 5.0 (procite.com)
Software Reference Manager 11.01 (refman.com)
Biblioscape 6.0 (biblioscape.com)
All have versions for Mac (OS X) as well as
Windows (98 – XP) & support a variety of
word processors (except Biblioscape –
Windows only)
Cost: $110 – $200 (Education prices)
A Word (or two) on Purchases

NOTE: I am not recommending you purchase
ANY of these software products. I do not use
any of them and do not know how well they
work. The purpose of this list is to let you
know what is out there, but you should
practice the maxim “let the buyer beware.”

I would recommend you purchase the APA
Publication Manual (5th ed.).