New forms of Internationalisation in East and Southeast Asia
University of Hull, 18 March 2015
Higher education and science
in emerging East Asia
Challenges for UK universities
Simon Marginson
UCL Institute of Education
[coverage]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Worldwide higher education
Roots of the East Asian ‘miracle’
Participation and learning
Research
World Class Universities
East Asian students in the UK
Collaboration in research
1. Worldwide higher education
rapid growth in participation, global mobility,
science output, nations with science capacity
0
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
GTER World and North America/Western
Europe, 1970-2012
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
World
North America and Western Europe
Students enrolled outside their
country of citizenship, millions, 19752012
OECD data, 2014
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
4.1
4.5
3.0
0.8
1975
1.1
1.1
1980
1985
1.3
1990
1.7
1995
2.1
2000
2005
2010
2012
The growth of science, 1995-2011
Total world output of journal papers per year, US National Science Foundation data,
2014
900,000
827,705
800,000
783,359
740,417
788,728
799,599
758,603
710,294
688,691
700,000
600,000
661,790
630,452
564,645
581,760
588,488
602,430
610,203
629,386
638,381
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
1
20
1
0
20
1
9
20
0
8
20
0
7
20
0
6
20
0
5
20
0
4
20
0
3
20
0
2
20
0
1
20
0
0
20
0
9
19
9
8
19
9
7
19
9
6
19
9
19
9
5
0
51 countries with 1000 science papers a
yearUS National Science Foundation data for 2011
ANGLOSPHERE
EUROPE
EU NATIONS
EUROPE
NON-EU
ASIA
LATIN
AMERICA
Australia
Austria
Italy
Croatia*
China
Argentina
Canada
Belgium
Netherlands
Norway
India
Brazil
N. Zealand
Czech Rep.
Poland
Russia
Japan
Chile*
UK
Denmark
Portugal*
Serbia*
Malaysia*
Mexico
USA
Finland
Romania*
Switzerland
Pakistan*
M.EAST /AF
France
Slovakia
Turkey
Singapore
Iran
Germany
Slovenia*
Ukraine
South Korea
Israel
Greece
Sweden
Taiwan
Saudi Arab.*
Hungary
Spain
Thailand*
Sth. Africa
Ireland
Sweden
Egypt
Tunisia*
* Reached 1000 papers since 1997 (11 out of 51 nations)
World R&D: North America, Western
Europe, East Asia in 2011 ($s billion)
OECD data 2013
2. Roots of the East Asian ‘miracle’
East Asian (Sinic) cultural sphere
China
Hong Kong
SAR
Macau SAR
Taiwan
Singapore
South Korea
Japan
Vietnam
Economy and population, East Asia,
2013/14
United Nations, World Bank, CIA Fact Book for Taiwan economic data only
Country/system
Population
GDP PPP
GNP PPP per
(millions)
(USD $bil)
capita
(USD $)
Macau SAR
0.6
87
142,564
Singapore
5.5
425
78,744
Hong Kong SAR
7.2
382
53,203
Taiwan
23.4
926
39,600
Japan
127.1
4624
36,315
50.4
1664
33,140
1367.6
16,158
11,904
89.7
475
5293
South Korea
China (mainland only)
Vietnam
United States
United Kingdom
319.0
15,653
53,143
64.1
2320
36,197
Common and traditional practices that
shape higher education in East Asia
There are many political, linguistic and cultural differences between the
nations of East Asia but they share certain common features, grounded in
2200 years of Sinic tradition, that shape their higher education systems
• The comprehensive state, with broad responsibility for
social order, intervening selectively, able to secure a high
level of social consent (contrast this Sinic state with the
limited liberal state tradition in the English-speaking world)
• Confucian practices of educational self-cultivation in the
family
• The examination as a principal means of educational and
social selection
The comprehensive Sinic state begins
First effectively centralised Chinese state (Qin), 221-206 BCE
The Sinic state is consolidated
Han dynasty China 206 BCE – 220 CE
Sinic cultural sphere extends in East
Asia
Tang Dynasty 618-907 CE
The spread of education
Song Dynasties 960-1279 CE
The classical state in Europe
Roman Empire, 2nd century CE
The nation-state in East Asia
Politics not the economy is in command
‘The development of the political sphere in the Chinese
world and its pre-eminence over all the other (military,
religious, economic) is one of its most characteristic
marks … This is certainly one of the constants and one
of the great original aspects of the Chinese world, one
that distinguishes it from all others.’
- Jacques Gernet (1982), A History of Chinese Civilization, 2nd Edition, Transl. J.R.
Foster and Charles Hartman, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 28-29
Educational self-cultivation in the family
•
‘A defining
characteristic of East Asian thought is the
widely accepted proposition that human beings are
perfectible through self-effort in ordinary daily existence.’
- Tu Wei-Ming (1985)
• Nowhere else in the world is extra schooling and private
tuition pursued at the same level of intensity, e.g. in Korea
over 3 per cent of GDP is spent on shadow schooling.
A distinctive Post-Confucian Model of
higher education and science
1.
2.
3.
4.
Comprehensive Sinic state commitment
Economic growth and rising middle class
Confucian educational cultivation at home
Shared state-household resourcing frees resources for
focused investment
5. Modernisation imperative (catch up to the West)
6. State-shaped techniques of internationalisation
Internationalisation is a key
Internationalisation joined to focused state investment have
underpinned the rise of higher education and science in
East Asia
• Global engagement and global standards (1) lock HEIs
and national science system to internationally competitive
performance (2) allow countries to source benefits from
collaboration and (3) step up global publishing in English
• Output goals based on publication and citation numbers
and quality (absolute not relative performance, objective
data)
• International benchmarking of disciplines and institutions
• Facilitation of global mobility: bringing back diaspora,
attracting talent, and sending students and staff abroad
• Management reform along international lines
3. Participation and learning
GTERs in East Asia and Singapore,
2012
UNESCO Institute for Statistics & Taiwan Ministry of Education
Taiwan and Macau data for 2011
South Korea
Taiwan
Macau SAR
Hong Kong SAR
Japan
China
Vietnam
Singapore
India
WORLD
98
84
62
60
61
27
25
Data not available
25
32
0
20
40
2012
60
1995
80
100
120
Growth of tertiary participation faster
than GDP per capita, China 1980-2012
Top ten school systems OECD PISA
2012
(mean student scores, East Asian education systems in red)
Reading
Mathematics
Science
Shanghai China 570
Shanghai China 613
Shanghai China 580
Hong Kong SAR 545
Singapore 573
Hong Kong SAR 555
Singapore 542
Hong Kong SAR 561
Singapore 551
Japan 538
Taiwan 560
Japan 547
South Korea 536
South Korea 554
Finland 545
Finland 524
Macao SAR 538
Estonia 541
Taiwan 523
Japan 536
South Korea 538
Canada 523
Liechtenstein 535
Vietnam 528
Ireland 523
Switzerland 531
Poland 526
Poland 518
Netherlands 523
Liechtenstein 525
Canada 525
Vietnam 508
Vietnam 511
UK 499
UK 494
UK 514
USA 498
USA 481
USA 497
Superior in STEM
(Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics)
China
Compulsory mathematics to end of school
Majority of university students study in STEM
New vocational-technical HEIs, alongside academic
stream
Dominance of engineering in research
South
Korea
Innovative STEAM program in schools to promote
creativity in science and technology
Vocational-technical HEIs, alongside academic stream
High graduate output of engineers
Japan
Has increased content requirements in school science
and mathematics to lift PISA performance
Taiwan
High quality vocational-technical education at both
school and university levels
Strong engineering research and graduate output
PISA performance at top and bottom
4. Research
R&D as a proportion of GDP, 2012
Selected countries, OECD data 2015
5
4.03
4
3
3.43
2.81
1
3.35
3.02 2.96
2.88
2.23
2.13
2
3.28
1.71 1.63
3.06
2.02 1.95
1.97
0.89
1.12 1.16
Un
ite
d
St
a
Au tes
str
a li
Un
a
C
ite
a
n
d
Ki ada
ng
do
m
F in
la
Sw nd
e
D den
en
Sw ma
it z r k
er
l
G and
er
m
an
y
N Fra
et nc
he e
r la
nd
s
So Pol
ut and
h
Ko
re
a
Jap
a
Ta n
i
Sin wan
ga
po
re
Ch
ina
Ru
ss
ia
Br
az
il
0
Data for 2011 for Australia and Brazil
Fast growing East Asian systems
journal papers per year, 1997-2011
Source: US National Science Foundation data, 2014
100,000
90,000
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
UK
China
South Korea
Taiwan
Singapore
Improved research in Chemistry in
China
Share of all papers and top 1% most cited papers, Chemistry, 2000 &
2012
share of ALL papers
in Chemistry
USA
China
Japan
EU
2000
20.3%
3.7%
11.2 %
38.7%
2012
16.2%
16.9%
7.9%
29.6%
USA
China
Japan
EU
2000
48.6%
0.6%
9.3%
30.2%
2012
33.5%
16.3%
5.6%
28.4%
share of TOP 1%
papers in Chemistry
R&D in China by field, 2010
(billion yuan)
Engineering & Technologies
88.40
Natural Sciences
18.77
Agriculture
8.47
Medicine
4.99
5. World Class Universities
Shanghai ARWU top 500 universities
Chinese systems 2004 & 2014
2005
2014
China mainland
8
32
Hong Kong SAR
5
5
Taiwan China
3
7
Singapore
2
2
18
46
Total
World-Class Universities: Singapore
World
rank
on
paper
volume
University
Journal
papers
2009-2012
World
rank on
citation
quality
Papers in top
10% of field as
proportion of
all papers
%
Number of
papers in
top 10% of
field
6 Stanford USA
13,399
5
22.3
2993
13 Cambridge UK
11,778
19
18.4
2163
28 National U Singapore
10,387
112
13.1
1361
7331
98
13.5
986
63 Nanyang U Technology
Source : Leiden University CWTS, 2014
Asian HEIs, top 10% papers, 2009-2012
university
system
papers
123
Nanjing
CHINA
595
1361
130
Sun Yat-sen
CHINA
563
CHINA
1025
135
Chinese U HK
HONG KONG
548
Zhejiang
CHINA
1018
145
Sichuan
CHINA
529
55
Nanyang
SINGAPORE
986
152
Harbin IT
CHINA
522
57
Kyoto
JAPAN
982
157
Yonsei
KOREA
517
67
Peking
CHINA
906
169
Korea AI S&T
KOREA
493
70
Seoul National
KOEA
901
180
Jilin
CHINA
466
72
Shanghai JT
CHINA
887
182
Huazhong S&T
CHINA
463
87
Fudan
CHINA
784
183
Shandong
CHINA
457
95
Osaka
JAPAN
724
185
Nankai
CHINA
456
100
Nat.Taiwan
TAIWAN
695
199
Dalian UT
CHINA
428
103
U Hong Kong
HONG KONG
669
200
Nagoya
JAPAN
427
117
U S&T China
CHINA
621
201
HK Polytechnic
HONG KONG
426
120
Tohoku
JAPAN
606
211
City U HK
HONG KONG
406
world
university
system
papers
29
Tokyo
JAPAN
1389
30
NU Singapore
SINGAPORE
49
Tsinghua
53
world
The case of Vietnam
Why not Vietnam?
• Vietnam has a Confucian educational culture at home
• It shares with East Asian states the extra learning
outside formal school. PISA performance exceeds UK in
all disciplines
• But higher education and science remain weak and
riddled with failed development schemes and corruption
• Economic growth is solid but per capita incomes are still
only 45 per cent the level of China
• The state political culture is shaped by the Soviet
tradition (many current leaders spent time in Russia) as
well as Sinic
CONCLUSION – Vietnam has some elements and
6. East Asian students in the UK
UK’s offshore international
enrolments
4.5 million foreign tertiary students, 2012:
share of on-shore world market by nation
OECD data 2014
other non-OECD,
17%
USA, 16%
other OECD, 8%
UK, 13%
Belgium, 1%
Switzerland, 1%
Korea, 1%
Netherlands, 1%
South Africa, 2%
Australia, 6%
Austria, 2%
Italy, 2%
Germany, 6%
New Zealand, 2%
Russia, 4%
China, 2%
Spain, 2%
France, 6%
Japan, 3%
Canada, 5%
UK shoots itself in the foot
• Inbound students fell in 2012-13 and rose only slightly in
2013-14
• Inclusion of international students in migration targets
• Cost of visas (US $520 in UK, $360 in USA, $124 in
Canada)
• Complaints of slow visa processing
• Interviews of non-EU students to establish student integrity
• Regular university surveillance and reporting for non-EU
students
• Post-study work visas scrapped in 2012 and graduates must
now find work at £24,000 p.a., in their field, within four
months. More attractive graduate work rights in Canada and
Australia.
So you were thinking about migrating to
UK?
★
International education generates close to £20 billion a year in spending by
students and families, and 81 UK HEIs draw more than 10 per cent of their
revenue from this source.
In 2013-14, non-EU students increased by 3% and there was no change in EU
UK student enrolment from non-EU
countries, 2010-11 and 2013-14
HESA data 2015
58,810
China
11,270
India
Nigeria
10,265
USA
10,085
9,070
Malaysia
6,750
Hong Kong SAR
Saudi Arabia
4,260
Thailand
4,130
Pakistan
3,485
Canada
3,210
0
10,000
20,000
2013-14
30,000
40,000
2010-11
50,000
60,000
7. Collaboration in research
UK co-authorship in East Asia
compared to other English speaking
countries 2011
1.00 = average rate of collaboration for the countries ocncerned
National Science Foundation data 2014
UK
USA
Canada
Australia
China
0.56
1.10
0.74
1.11
South Korea
0.47
1.25
0.54
0.54
Taiwan
0.71
1.22
0.88
1.14
Singapore
0.67
0.74
0.45
1.48
Thank you for listening this late in the day …
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