You Gotta Know These Economists
1.
Adam Smith (1723-1790) Scottish philosopher and economist. Though he wrote on nearly every subject of moral
and social philosophy, he is basically remembered as the author of An Inquiry into the nature and causes of the Wealth
of Nations (1776) and as the creator of the metaphor of the "invisible hand." This work more-or-less single-handedly
founded the Classical school of economics.
2.
Milton Friedman (1912- ) American economist. Conservative thinker famous for his advocacy of monetarism (an
revision of the quantity theory of money) in works like A Monetary History of the United States, 1867-1960 (1963). he
is strongly associated with the ideals of laissez-faire government policy.
3.
Karl Marx (1818-1883) German economist, historian, and social philosopher. Marx's principal contribution to
economic thought was extending the labor theory of value to its logical conclusion, his theory of surplus value. This
theory, along with his defense of economic materialism, appeared in Das Kapital (1867, 1885, 1894).
4.
John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) English economist. He is most famous for The General Theory of Employment,
Interest and Money (1936), which judged most of classical economic analysis to be a special case (hence "General
Theory") and argued that the best way to deal with prolonged recessions was deficit spending.
5.
David Ricardo (1772-1823) English economist. Ricardo is best known for Principles of Political Economy and
Taxation, which introduced more-or-less modern notions of comparative advantage and its theoretical justification
for unfettered international trade. He also put forth the so-called iron law of wages.
6.
John Kenneth Galbraith (1908- ) Canadian economist. Galbraith probably wouldn't make this list if contributions to
economic theory were all that mattered; as it is, his liberal popular writings like The Affluent Society and The New
Industrial State (with their emphasis on public service and the limitations of the marketplace) ensure his coming up
again and again.
7.
Francois Quesnay (1694-1774) French economist. Quesnay was the undisputed leader of the Physiocrats, the first
systematic school of economic thought. Among its tenets were the economic and moral righteousness of laissez-faire
policies and the notion that land was the ultimate source of all wealth.
8.
Alfred Marshall (1842-1924) English economist. Marshall's magnum opus, 1890's Principles of Economics,
introduced the notions of consumer surplus, quasi-rent, demand curves, and elasticity, all fundamental concepts in
introductory macro- and microeconomics.
9.
Thorstein Veblen (1857-1929) American economist (of Norwegian heritage). Veblen is primarily remembered for
his The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899) that introduced phrases like "conspicuous consumption." He is
remembered for likening the ostentation of the rich to the Darwinian proofs-of-virility found in the animal kingdom.
10. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) British economist and social philosopher. Mill is mainly known today (in economic
circles) for his work extending the ideas of Ricardo in Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy (1844)
(for example, the relationship between profits and wages) but also for exhaustively examining the necessity of
private property in his Principles of Political Economy (1848).
Do you want another opinion? The San Francisco Federal Reserve Bank has its own list of the Great Economists to which you
can compare and contrast. With respect to quiz bowl, we will add that Irving Fisher is probably underrepresented in quiz
bowl with respect to his importance. We were surprised to see Thomas Malthus on their list as his lasting contributions to
economic thought are not thought to be very great; that said, he caused an enormous contemporary stir with his pessimistic
predictions of omnipresent starvation in 1798's Essay on Population which does come up quite frequently.
You Gotta Know These Kings of France
1.
Louis XIV (1638-1715, r. 1643-1715) House of Bourbon. Louis XIV's reign is often cited as the best historical
example of an absolute monarchy. Louis led France against most of the rest of Europe to win the throne of Spain for
his grandson (the War of the Spanish Succession). He championed classical art, religious orthodoxy, and instituted a
great program of building throughout France. Known as the "Sun King," his 72-year-reign is the second longest in
recorded history.
2.
Louis XIII (1601-1643, r. 1610-1643) House of Bourbon. Sometimes working with his chief minister, Cardinal
Richelieu, and sometimes against, Louis XIII turned France into the pre-eminent European power during his reign.
This was largely achieved via French victories in the Thirty Years' War. The Three Musketeers is set in the early years
of his reign.
3.
Francis I (1494-1547, r. 1515-1547) House of Valois. Francis's early military victories (like the Battle of Marignano),
his lavish court, and his support of luminaries like Leonardo da Vinci augured a splendid reign. His rivalry with
Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire spelled his doom, however. He was captured in battle in 1525 and held for a
humiliating ransom. Wars continued after his release, but bankruptcy and religious strife laid France low.
4.
Henry IV (1553-1610, r. 1589-1610) Founder of the house of Bourbon. Henry, the king of Navarre, became the heir
to the throne when Henry III's brother died in 1584. After fighting Catholic opposition in the War of the Three
Henries, he renounced Protestantism and accepted Catholicism in order to enter Paris and become king. With the
help of Maximilien Sully he erased the national debt and removed much of the religious strife with the Edict of
Nantes (1598).
5.
Philip II (1165-1223, r. 1179-1223) House of Capet. Philip was the first of the great Capetian kings of France.
Fighting and negotiating against Henry II, Richard I, and John of England, Philip won back Normandy, Brittany, Anjou,
and other territories. He also took part in the famous Third Crusade (with Richard I and Frederick Barbarossa) and
made use of the Albigensian crusade to pave the way for the annexation of Languedoc by his successor.
6.
Charles VIII (1470-1498, r. 1483-1498) House of Valois. Charles' short reign is remarkable for the enormous cost in
men and money of his Italian campaign but more so for the number of his successors that to followed his
catastrophic lead. Charles was motivated by a desire to govern Naples, which he had theoretically inherited. He died
before he could surpass or absolve his disastrous first campaign with another.
7.
Louis IX (1214-1270, r. 1226-1270) House of Capet. Louis led the Seventh Crusade that ended in military disaster,
but after his ransoming remained in the Holy Land to successfully negotiate for what he couldn't win. He returned to
Europe with his reputation intact and negotiated a peace with England that saw Henry III become his vassal. He
stabilized the French currency and is generally held to have reduced corruption in the kingdom. He died leading a
crusade against Tunisia. St. Louis is the only canonized king of France.
8.
Louis VIII (1187-1226, r. 1223-1226) House of Capet. Though he reigned for only three years, Louis' contributions
to the rise of French power were enormous. He annexed Languedoc and captured Poitou from England. Perhaps
more importantly, he established the systems of appanages (land grants) which replaced the older, local nobles with
barons who owed their fiefs to the crown. This allowed for the subsequent rise in French royal (and national) power.
9.
Charles V (1338-1380, r. 1364-1380) House of Capet. Charles had an inauspicious start (before his reign even
began) with having to ransom his father, John II, from England for three million crowns and most of southwestern
France. Later, with military advisor Bertrand du Guesclin, he recaptured almost all of that territory. He also
concluded alliances with Portugal, Spain, and Flanders, reorganized the army, and restructured the collection of
taxes while leading France's recovery from the devastation of the early period of the Hundred Years' War.
10. Henry III (1551-1589, r. 1574-1589) House of Valois. Henry's reign was suffused with blood, at first because of the
continuous Wars of Religion that pitted Catholics against Huguenots, but later because of the struggles that arose
when it became clear that he was going to be the last of the Valois line. The War of the Three Henries broke out after
his brother died and the then-Protestant Henry of Navarre (later Henry IV) became heir, leading the Catholic Holy
League to strike out of fear for its interests. Henry III was assassinated by a crazed friar in 1589.
NAQT's editors opted to not include kings of Franks; had we, several of them (including Charles Martel and Charlemagne)
would have made this list. Similarly, Louis Philippe, the "king of the French" placed on the throne after Charles X abdicated in
1830, was excluded from consideration, though it's not clear at all that he would have merited a mention in the first place.
You Gotta Know These Revolutionary War Generals
1.
Benedict Arnold Volunteering for service following the Battle of Lexington, he joined Ethan Allen in the attack on
Fort Ticonderoga. Appointed by Washington to capture Quebec, he was severely wounded in the failed December
1775 assault that also saw the death of General Richard Montgomery. Arming a flotilla on Lake Champlain, he
attacked the British forces at Valcour Island, earning accolades, perhaps at the cost of the support of other officers.
Passed over for promotion, Washington personally persuaded him not to resign. Promoted following his defense of
Danbury, he again considered resignation, but won victory at Ft. Stanwix, and commanded advance battalions at
Saratoga, being wounded in the fight. Sent to command Philadelphia, he lived extravagantly among Loyalists, and
skirted several regulations to raise money, prompting investigations. After marrying Peggy Shippen, he made
overtures to the British, alerting them to a plan to invade Canada, and planning to betray his expected command of
West Point. When his contact, Major John Andre was captured, he escaped. Later, as part of the British army he
raided New London, Connecticut, and led several raids on Virginia.
2.
John Burgoyne "Gentleman Johnny," as he was known due to his cultural tastes (Burgoyne was also a playwright),
he began his Revolutionary War career under Gage, returning to England after ineffectiveness in 1774-5. Sent to
reinforce Canada, he formulated a plan to isolate New England, with the help of Barry St. Leger and William Howe.
The plan worked as far as capturing Fort Ticonderoga, but met resistance when he sent his Hessians to attack
Bennington. Exhausted, his troops met trouble at Saratoga, being repulsed at Freedman's Farm, and being forced to
surrender after Bemis Heights. Paroled on condition he returned to England, Burgoyne was later appointed
commander-in-chief of Ireland.
3.
Charles Cornwallis, First Marquess of Cornwallis An aristocrat and ensign in 1756, he fought in the battle of
Minden, and by the end of the Seven Years' War, he was a captain. Made aide-de-camp to George III, he made colonel,
and was promoted to major general before being sent to America. After a failed assault on Charleston, he served
under Sir Henry Clinton in the battle of Long Island, but made his mark in fighting at Manhattan and pursued
Washington across the Hudson, being outmaneuvered by Washington at Princeton (January 3, 1777). Following this
defeat he directed the main attack on Brandywine Creek, and reinforcing Germantown, as part of the plan to capture
Philadelphia. Promoted to second in command under Clinton after the Philadelphia campaign, he led the Battle of
Monmouth before returning home to attend his sick wife. Sent south in 1780 to capture Charleston, he bested
Horatio Gates at Camden (N.C.) and Nathaniel Greene at Guilford Courthouse, the latter a pyrrhic victory which likely
led to his defeat in attempts to contain Lafayette in Virginia. Following this, he occupied Yorktown in August 1781,
where he was surrounded by American and French forces, and forced to surrender. Following the war, he was
appointed governor-general of India, and proved to be a capable administrator.
4.
Horatio Gates Wounded in the disastrous French and Indian War attack on Fort Duquesne, it was there he first met
George Washington. Recommended by Washington to be adjutant general of the army at the outbreak of revolution,
he organized the army around Boston into an effective force. Promoted to major general in 1776, he was assigned to
command troops in New York originally intended to invade Canada. Briefly put in charge of Philadelphia, he then
directed the defense of New York against Burgoyne's invasion attempt, leading to victory at Saratoga. Following this
he became involved in the Conway cabal, an attempt to replace Washington, which led to coldness between the two.
Placed in command of the South over Washington's objections by Congress, he tried to raise adequate forces, but lost
the battle of Camden to Cornwallis, and was replaced by Nathaniel Greene. Washington then accepted Gates back as
his deputy, a position he held until the end of the war.
5.
Sir Guy Carleton Irish-born, he led grenadiers across the Plains of Abraham in the 1759 siege of Quebec under his
close friend General Wolfe. He entered the war as second in command to Thomas Gage before taking command after
Gage's 1775 recall. Carleton then directed British troops from Canada to Boston after the Battle of Concord, resulting
in a revolt. Carleton then repulsed efforts by Montgomery and Benedict Arnold to capture Montreal and Quebec,
routing a second attempt by Arnold, by defeating an American naval buildup on Lake Champlain. Following this, he
attempted to support Burgoyne's failed plan to isolate New England. Brought back to Britain to govern Armagh in
Ireland in 1777, he sat out all but the end of the war, returning in 1782 as commander-in-chief after Cornwallis'
surrender.
6.
Nathanael Greene A prominent Rhode Island politician prior to the revolution, he raised a militia company but was
not elected their captain due to his partial lameness. Following his work in the siege of Boston, he marched his army
to Long Island, where they aided in the battles around New York. Following the loss of Fort Washington, Greene led
forces into victory at the Battle of Trenton, and then again distinguished himself by protecting Washington's force at
the Battle of Brandywine. Greene then led the main force at Germantown, and led the evacuation of positions along
the Delaware River in fall 1777. The next year, Greene's logistical talents led Washington to appoint him
quartermaster general, a position he only accepted if he were allowed to retain field troops. He then led those troops
as the right wing in the Battle of Monmouth. The quartermaster general position led to conflicts with the Continental
Congress, and Greene resigned in 1780. Appointed to command to replace the traitor Benedict Arnold, he was sent
south following Gates' loss at Camden. Joining with Daniel Morgan, he retreated from Cornwallis' forces for two
months until a crippling counterattack at Guilford Courthouse, which gave a costly victory to the British. Until the
end of the war, Greene led a spirited offensive against Lord Rawdon's, and later Duncan Stuart's, forces, besieging
Augusta and Ninety-Six, and establishing headquarters in Charleston following Washington's victory at Yorktown.
7.
Sir William Howe A veteran of the siege of Louisbourg, and the leader of the ascent to the Plains of Abraham
(Quebec, 1759), he was dispatched in 1775 as second in command to Gage. After directing the attack on Bunker Hill,
he succeeded Gage as commander, and coordinated a strategic retreat from Boston to Halifax. In Halifax, he
coordinated a joint army-navy attack with his brother, Richard, an admiral, resulting in a campaign which allowed
the British to control New York City. After his attempts to secure a peace in 1777 failed, he led the attack on
Philadelphia, defeating Washington at Brandywine. After this, he wintered in Philadelphia, waiting for acceptance of
his resignation, due to the failed peace negotiations. On May 25, 1778, he relinquished command to Sir Henry Clinton
and returned home.
8.
Tadeusz Andrezj Bonawentura Kosciusko After receiving military training in his native Poland and France, he
resigned his commission due to poor advancement prospect. Offering his assistance to the Americans, he helped
fortify the Delaware River in 1776, earning himself the rank of colonel. That winter, he planned the building of Fort
Mercer, and the next spring headed north with General Gates, becoming commander of the northern army and
building fortifications which helped win the battle of Saratoga. In 1780, he worked on building defenses for West
Point, then headed south when Gates was appointed command of the Southern Department. Serving under Nathaniel
Greene, he distinguished himself in the Race to the Dan River, and at Charleston, but mishandled the siege of NinetySix. Following the war, he was granted American citizenship but returned home to Poland. Back home he resisted
partition, and attempted to liberate the nation afterward.
9.
Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette Approached by U.S. Minister to France
Silas Deane, he arrived in April 1777 with Baron de Kalb. First seeing action at Brandywine, his primary early action
was in supporting Washington during the winter at Valley Forge. After participating at the battles of Barren Hill,
Monmouth, and Newport, he returned to France, raising support for an expeditionary force. Returning to America a
colonel, he served on the board that sentenced Major Andre to death, and then faced Andre's confederate Benedict
Arnold in battle in 1781. Working in Virginia, he evaded Cornwallis' forces, until reinforcements arrived in June.
Coordinating with Anthony Wayne, the two combined forces against Cornwallis in the battle of Green Spring.
Pursuing Cornwallis to Yorktown, Lafayette helped the siege there until Cornwallis' surrender.
10. Francis Marion Previously an Indian fighter, Marion was given command of Fort Sullivan in 1776. Commanding the
2nd South Carolina, he fought at Savannah, and escaped capture when the British recaptured Charleston. From there,
Marion fought a successful guerilla campaign against British troops, forcing Cornwallis to appoint Colonel Banastre
Tarleton to eliminate Marion. Tarleton's frustration at the task led to the remark "But as for this damned old fox, the
devil himself could not catch him," creating Marion's nickname of "Swamp Fox." Promoted to brigadier general in
1781, and later given command of the North and South Carolina militias, Marion fought the British at Eutaw Springs.
11. John Paul Jones A Scotsman who had fled Britain after two deaths at his hands, he added the last name Jones to his
given name of John Paul. At the outbreak of conflict, he was commissioned to outfit the Alfred, which he then used to
help capture New Providence in the Bahamas. The next month, April 1776, saw him lead the Alfred against the HMS
Glasgow, leading him to promotion and command of the Providence. Ordered to raid until his provisions were
expended, he sank and captured ships in operations along the Atlantic coast. Commissioned captain of the Ranger, he
sailed to France to acquire new ships, and captured the HMS Drake. Leaving Europe in August 1779, he met the
British ship Serapis in battle September 23, 1779.
12. Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben Formerly part of Frederick the Great's staff, the Prussian Steuben was
recommended by Ben Franklin to George Washington. Accepted by the Continental Congress, Steuben joined
Washington at Valley Forge, and began training the army. Appointed major general and inspector general in May
1777, he aided in the Battle of Monmouth, then spent two years writing the Regulations for the Order and Discipline of
the Troops of the United States, an army training manual. Sent to Virginia in 1780 to oppose Benedict Arnold's
actions, illness caused him to turn over his troops to Lafayette, but Steuben recovered in time to aid in the siege of
Yorktown.
13. George Washington Selected by the Continental Congress to serve as general-in-chief, his first actions were to
blockade Boston. Key to the success in Boston was the capture of Dorchester Heights, allowing cannon fire against
the British and forcing the withdrawal of Howe. After failing to defend New York, Washington retreated toward
Pennsylvania, extending British supply lines and allowing a successful counterattack on Hessian mercenaries at
Trenton. Following victory at Princeton, Washington retired to winter quarters at Morristown. Sending his best
forces north to deal with Burgoyne's attack in spring 1777, he kept Howe engaged in the mid-Atlantic. Autumn
setbacks at Brandywine and Germantown led to a demoralized winter camp at Valley Forge, countered by the work
of Lafayette, Steuben, and others. After a costly draw with Sir Henry Clinton's forces at Monmouth, Washington sent
Greene south to replace Gates, and worked with the French general Jean Baptiste Rochambeau to plan the Yorktown
campaign. The success of this campaign led to Cornwallis' surrender on October 19, 1781.
You Gotta Know These Egyptian Deities
The Egyptian creation myth begins with the emergence of Ra (or Re), the sun god, from the ocean in the form of an egg (or,
alternately, a flower.) Ra brought forth four children: Geb, Shu, Nut, and Tefnut. Shu and Nut became manifestations of air
and moisture. From Geb, the god of the earth, and Nut, goddess of the sky, were spawned four other gods: Osiris, Isis, Set (or
Seth), and Nepthys.
These nine gods became known as the ennead ("group of nine"). The center of their worship was Heliopolis, as all were tied
to Ra, the sun god. The Heliopolitan ennead was one of several in Egyptian theology, and at times this grouping was
superseded by other sets. Two notable alternatives were the ennead of the city of Memphis led by the god Ptah, and the
ennead of Thebes, with Amon at its head. Not surprisingly, the pre-eminence of these variations coincided with their
corresponding cities' political control of Egypt.
The Stories
Fortunately for quiz bowlers, there are, for most practical purposes, only three major episodes in Egyptian mythology.
Knowing the principal actors in these (as well as the various animal heads) will go a long way toward scoring points in the
category.

The first is the "family quarrel" of Osiris and Set: Osiris took Isis, his sister, for his wife, and ruled over the earth. Set
grew jealous of his brother and killed him, afterwards cutting his body into 14 pieces and hiding them in various
places around Egypt. He then claimed kingship over the land. Isis searched the breadth of the land until she had
recovered all of the pieces and, with the help of Anubis, embalmed the body. She then conceived a son, Horus, by the
(still dead) Osiris and then resurrected him. Horus defeated Set to regain the kingship and all subsequent pharaohs
were said to be aspects of him.

The second is the afterlife; the Egyptians believed that the soul had three components, the ba, ka, and akh, each of
which had different roles after death. The ka remained near or within the body (which is why mummification was
required). The ba went to the underworld where it merged with aspects of Osiris, but was allowed to periodically
return (which is why Egyptian tombs often contained narrow doors). The akh could temporarily assume different
physical forms and wander the world as a ghost of sorts. In the underworld, the ba was subjected to the Judgment of
Osiris in the Hall of Double Justice where the heart of the deceased was weighed against Ma'at, commonly
represented as an ostrich feather.

The third is actually an historical episode: during the reign of Amenhotep III (1390-1353 BC), worship of the god
Aton (or Aten)--a representation of the disc of the sun--was resurrected. This process was carried to its extreme
conclusion by his successor, Amenhotep IV, who eventually declared Aton to be the only god, thereby creating one of
the earliest known monotheistic religions. The pharaoh even changed his name to Akhenaton, meaning "Aton is
satisfied." The worship of Aton was centered on the capital city of Tell-al-Amarna and was largely confined to upper
classes and the pharaonic court and, in any case, did not survive Amenhotep himself. Under his successor,
Tutankhamen (of King Tut fame), traditional religious practices were restored.
The Pantheon
1.
Osiris Husband of Isis, father of Horus, and brother of Set, Osiris served as god of the underworld, and protector of
the dead. In addition to his role as the chief and judge of the underworld (as a result of the above-mentioned murder
by Set), Osiris also served as a god of vegetation and renewal; festivals honoring his death occurred around the time
of the Nile flood's retreat. Statues representing him were made of clay and grain, which would then germinate. Osiris
was represented either as a green mummy, or wearing the Atef, a plumed crown.
2.
Set Created in opposition to the forces of Ma'at, Set (termed Typhon by Plutarch) fought the demon Apopis each day,
emerging victorious, symbolic of the struggle of forces that brought harmony. In later times, this struggle led Set to
be associated with the serpent itself, and Set became the personification of violence and disorder, and the cause of all
disasters. Having killed his brother Osiris, Set did battle with Osiris' son Horus, being emasculated in the fight. His
cult was diminished over time, due to reaction against violence. His effigies were destroyed by some, while others
were changed into representations of Amon, by replacing the ears with horns.
3.
Isis Isis, daughter of Geb and Nut, protected love, motherhood, and fate in the Egyptian mythos. Many of her roles are
similar to the goddess Hathor, but she is often equated with the Greek Demeter. Her powers were gained through
tricking the god Ra. By placing a snake in his path, which poisoned him, she forced him to give some power to her
before she would cure him.
4.
Horus The god of the sky and light and the son of Isis and Osiris. In earlier myth he was the brother of Set, and son of
Ra. His mother impregnated herself with the dead Osiris, and Horus was hidden by his mother. When he was grown,
he avenged his father's death, driving away Set. In the battle, he lost his eye, but regained it thanks to the god Thoth.
Thus Horus came to rule over the earth. He was known to have two faces, that of the falcon, Harsiesis, and that of a
child, Harpocrates.
5.
Ra Personification of the midday sun, he was also venerated as Atum (setting sun) and Khepri (rising sun), which
were later combined with him. He traveled across the sky each day and then each night, the monster Apep would
attempt to prevent his return. Other myths held that Ra spent the night in the underworld consoling the dead. The
god of the pharaohs, from the fourth dynasty onward all pharaohs termed themselves "sons of Ra," and after death
they joined his entourage. He was portrayed with the head of a falcon, and crowned with the sun disc.
6.
Amon Amon began as a local god of Thebes, governing the air, fertility and reproduction, his wife was Mut, and his
son Khon. Later, Amon became linked with the sun god Ra, and the two combined as Amon-Ra. In this form, he
became worshipped beyond Egypt, and identified with Zeus and Jupiter. His appearance in art was as a man in a
loincloth, with a headdress topped by feathers, but other appearances show him with the head of a ram. The temple
of Amon-Ra at Karnak was the largest ever built.
7.
Thoth Serving the gods as the supreme scribe, ibis-headed Thoth was known as the "tongue of Ptah" for his
knowledge of hieroglyphics, and as the "Heart of Re" for his creative powers. His knowledge of science and
calculation made him the creator of the calendar, and his symbol of the moon was due to his knowledge of how to
calculate its path. His knowledge of magic led to his association with the Greek Hermes. Thoth was consulted by Isis
when attempting to resurrect Osiris, and was again consulted when the young Horus was stung by a scorpion.
8.
Ptah Principal god of the city of Memphis, he was portrayed as a mummy, or wearing the beard of the gods on his
chin. His godhood was achieved by himself, much like his creation power, done merely by act of will. A patron of
craftsmen, he also was seen as a healer, in the form of a dwarf. In the death trilogy (Anubis, Osiris, Ptah), he was seen
as the god of embalming. His wife was the cat headed Sekhmet and his son was the lotus god Nefertem.
9.
Anubis Son of Osiris and Nepthys, and god of embalming to the Egyptians, he was typically pictured with the head of
a jackal. He also served as the god of the desert and the watcher of the tombs. He also served to introduce the dead to
the afterlife, and as their judge. To decide the fate of the dead, Anubis would weigh the heart of the dead against the
feather of truth. Anubis is sometimes identified with Hermes or Mercury.
10. Ma'at The daughter of Ra, she predated the universe, and served over the creation of it, ensuring balance between
everything. Primarily seen as the keeper of order, Ma'at was responsible for seasons, day and night, rainfall, and star
movements. A symbolic offering of Ma'at, in the form a statuette was given to the gods, as Ma'at encompassed all
other offerings. Ma'at's aspect as god of justice also showed through her role in death ritual, where her ostrich
feather symbol was weighed against the hearts of the dead in the underworld. Judges wore effigies of Ma'at, and the
supreme head of courts was said to be the priest of Ma'at.
11. Hathor Hathor (or Athor or Athyr) was the patron of women. Hathor was the daughter of Ra, and wife of Horus. She
fulfilled many functions as goddess of the sky, goddess of fertility, protector of marriage, and goddess of love and
beauty. In that final role she became equated with Aphrodite and Venus. Pictures of Hathor show the goddess with
the head of a cow.
12. Nephthys Termed the "lady of the castle," for her role as guardian of the tomb, she sided against her own husband,
Set, in his battle against Osiris, but when Set was destroyed, she collected the bits of his body, and brought him back
to life, much as Isis had done for Osiris. Isis' sister, she was also said to be Osiris' mistress, leading to much complaint
from Isis. Due to her close ties to all the other gods, she was rarely associated with a cult of her own.
You Gotta Know These Elections
Every U.S. presidential election is fair game for quiz bowl questions, but some elections are asked about very frequently,
either for the unusual nature of the election (e.g., 1876), for the extraordinary significance of the election in American history
(e.g., 1860), or for the figures involved (e.g., 1912). The following 10 that "you gotta know" are listed in chronological order.
1.
1800: Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson narrowly beat incumbent Federalist John Adams 73-65, marking the
ascent of that party's power. One electoral vote each is cast for president and vice president, so DemocraticRepublican VP candidate Aaron Burr also has 73 votes, but Burr refused to step aside. In the House of
Representatives, neither man won the necessary 9 state delegations outright until the 36th ballot, when James
Bayard of Delaware changed his vote to Jefferson. The debacle leads to passage of the 12th amendment in 1804. The
Federalists never recovered; Alexander Hamilton's opposition to Adams led to a permanent split between the two,
and Hamilton's opposition to Burr was one cause of their 1804 duel, in which Burr (then vice president) killed
Hamilton. Also notable is the first peaceful transfer of power from one party to another.
2.
1824: The candidates were John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford, and Andrew Jackson, all DemocraticRepublicans. After John C. Calhoun decided to seek the vice presidency and Crawford (from Georgia) had a stroke,
Jackson took most of the South and won the popular vote. Jackson had 99 electoral votes, Adams 84, Crawford 41,
and Clay 37, but since none had more than 50% of the vote, the House decided the election. Adams won in the House
with support from Clay, and Jacksonians cried foul when Clay was made Secretary of State (the so-called "corrupt
bargain"), giving fuel to Jackson's victorious 1828 campaign. Jackson is the only candidate to lose a presidential race
despite having the most electoral votes, and he is one of four (with Tilden, Cleveland, and Gore) to lose despite
winning the popular vote. The election also led to the founding of the Democratic Party.
3.
1860: Another four-candidate election, with Republican Abraham Lincoln, (northern) Democrat Stephen Douglas,
(southern) Democrat John C. Breckinridge, and Constitutional Unionist John G. Bell. The Republican Party, founded in
1854, won in its second election (its first candidate being Fremont in 1856), aided by the fragmenting of the
Democrats. Bell took Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia, Breckinridge swept the other slave states, and Lincoln
nearly swept the free states. Though winning under 40% of the total popular vote, Lincoln dominated the electoral
count with 180 to a combined 123 for his opponents (Breckinridge 72, Bell 39, Douglas 12). Seven southern states
seceded before Lincoln even took office, and war soon followed.
4.
1876: Republican Rutherford B. Hayes faced Democrat Samuel Tilden, best known for battling Tammany Hall and
the Tweed Ring in New York. Tilden won the popular vote and seemed to win the election, but results in Florida,
South Carolina, and Louisiana were contested, as was one vote in Oregon; if Hayes swept these votes, he would win
the electoral count 185 to 184. In Congress, an informal bargain was reached (often called the Compromise of 1877)
in which Hayes won the election in exchange for Reconstruction being brought to an end.
5.
1896: In the election itself, Republican William McKinley swept the North and Northeast to beat Democrat William
Jennings Bryan, but the campaign was the interesting part. The most prominent issue, the gold standard versus free
silver coinage, led to Bryan's famous "Cross of Gold" speech. Shunned by Eastern press, Bryan, a legendary orator,
traveled 18,000 miles through 27 states and was heard by some 3 million people. McKinley would not accept Bryan's
challenge to debate, comparing it to putting up a trapeze and competing with a professional athlete. McKinley
instead had a "front porch" campaign, as railroads brought voters by the thousands to hear him speak in his
hometown of Canton, Ohio. Mark Hanna, McKinley's campaign manager, is often considered the first modern
campaign manager. The election also represented the demise of the Populist Party and ushered in a 16-year period
of Republican rule. The gold question would disappear soon after the election with gold strikes in Australia and
Alaska.
6.
1912: Three presidents--Teddy Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson--earned electoral votes.
Roosevelt, displeased with his successor Taft, returned to lead the progressive Republican faction; after Taft got the
Republican nomination, Roosevelt was nominated by the Progressive Party (nicknamed the "Bull Moose" Party).
Wilson won with 435 electoral votes to Roosevelt's 88 and Taft's 8, making Taft the only incumbent to finish third in
a re-election bid. Though Wilson did set forth his New Freedom program, his dominating win must be credited
largely to the splitting of the Republican vote by Roosevelt and Taft.
7.
1948: In the most recent election with four significant candidates, Democrat Harry Truman beat Republican Thomas
Dewey, contrary to the famous headline of the Chicago Tribune, printed before results from the West came in. Dewey
dominated the Northeast, but Truman nearly swept the West to pull out the victory. Former vice president Henry
Wallace earned over a million votes as the Progressive candidate, and Strom Thurmond--yes, that Strom Thurmond-took over a million votes and 39 electoral votes as the States' Rights (or "Dixiecrat") candidate.
8.
1960: John F. Kennedy defeated vice president Richard Nixon 303-219 in a tight election, winning the popular vote
by just two-tenths of a percent. The first Kennedy-Nixon debate (from September 26, 1960) is a classic in political
science; those who saw the calm, handsome Kennedy and the tired, uncomfortable-looking Nixon on television were
more likely to select Kennedy as the winner than were those who listened on radio. (Theodore White's notable The
Making of the President series began with the 1960 election.) Voting irregularities in Texas and Illinois (especially in
Richard Daley's Chicago) led to allegations of fraud, but a recount would not have been feasible, and Nixon did not
press the issue. Nixon would go on to lose the 1962 California gubernatorial race (occasioning his famous statement,
"You won't have Dick Nixon to kick around any more").
9.
1968: After Lyndon Johnson declined to run for re-election, and after Robert F. Kennedy was killed in California, the
Democratic nomination went to Hubert Humphrey. Richard Nixon, gradually returning from political obscurity over
the past six years, gained the Republican nomination. Alabama governor George Wallace ran as the American
Independent candidate, becoming the last third-party candidate to win multiple electoral votes. Nixon edged
Humphrey by half a million popular votes and a 301-191 electoral count, while Wallace won nearly ten million votes.
Wallace's presence may well have tipped the election to the Republicans, who, after being out of power for 28 of the
last 36 years, would hold the presidency for all but four years through 1992.
10. 2000: The closest election in American history, it is sure to be a long-term staple of history questions. Al Gore won
the popular vote but lost the electoral vote by a final count of 271-266 (one Gore elector abstained). Ralph Nader of
the Green Party won an important 2.7% of the vote, while Pat Buchanan of the Reform Party placed fourth. New
Mexico and Oregon were initially too close to call but went to Gore, and Florida became the center of attention. Ballot
confusion in Palm Beach County, intimidation of vote recounters in Miami-Dade County, and absentee ballots
throughout Florida became significant issues, as Americans had to hear about butterfly ballots, hanging chads, and
Florida Secretary of State Katharine Harris for the next five weeks. Gore officially conceded the election on December
13, 2000.
Other notable election events include Polk's win as a "dark horse" candidate in 1844, Cleveland's loss in 1888 despite
winning the popular vote, Wilson's narrow victory in 1916, FDR's defeats of Hoover in 1932 and Willkie in 1940, Reagan's
victory in 1980, and Clinton's win in 1992.
You Gotta Know These Psychologists
1.
Sigmund Freud (Austrian, 1856-1939) Sigmund Freud founded the extremely influential discipline of
psychoanalysis, which used the technique of "free association" to identify fears and repressed memories. He argued
that many problems were caused by mental states rather than by biochemical dysfunction--a purely materialist
viewpoint then in vogue. He separated the psyche into the id (illogical passion), ego (rational thought), and superego
(moral and social conscience). His best known works are The Interpretation of Dreams and The Psychopathology of
Everyday Life, though many others come up frequently in quiz bowl.
2.
Carl Jung (Austrian, 1875-1961) Carl Jung was a close associate of Freud's who split with him over the degree to
which neuroses had a sexual basis. He went on to create the movement of "analytic psychology" and introduced the
controversial notion of the "collective unconscious"--a socially shared area of the mind. Quiz bowlers should be
familiar with "anima," "animus," "introversion," "extroversion," and "archetypes," all terms that occur frequently in
questions on Jung.
3.
Alfred Adler (Austrian, 1870-1937) Alfred Adler was another close associate of Freud who split with him over
Freud's insistence that sexual issues were at the root of neuroses and most psychological problems. Adler argued in
The Neurotic Constitution that neuroses resulted from people's inability to achieve self-realization; in failing to
achieve this sense of completeness, they developed "inferiority complexes" that inhibited their relations with
successful people and dominated their relations with fellow unsuccessful people, a theory given the general name of
"individual psychology."
4.
Ivan Pavlov (Russian 1849-1936) Ivan Pavlov was more of a physiologist than a psychologist, but questions about
him are more often classified as "psychology" than "biology" by question writers. He is largely remembered for his
idea of the "conditioned reflex," for example, the salivation of a dog at the sound of the bell that presages dinner,
even though the bell itself is inedible and has no intrinsic connection with food. He won the Nobel Prize in 1904 for
Physiology or Medicine for unrelated work on digestive secretions.
5.
John B. Watson (American, 1878-1958) John Watson was the first prominent exponent of behaviorism; he codified
its tenets in Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology, arguing that psychology could be completely
grounded in objective measurements of events and physical human reactions. His most famous experiment involved
conditioning an eleven-month-old boy to be apprehensive of all furry objects by striking a loud bell whenever a furry
object was placed in his lap.
6.
B. F. Skinner (American, 1904-1990) B. F. Skinner was one of the leading proponents of behaviorism in works like
Walden II and Beyond Freedom and Dignity. He argued that all human actions could be understood in terms of
physical stimuli and learned responses and that there was no need to study--or even believe in--internal mental
states or motivations; in fact, doing so could be harmful. Guided by his ideas, he trained animals to perform
complicated tasks including teaching pigeons to play table tennis.
7.
Jean Piaget (Swiss, 1896-1980) Jean Piaget is generally considered the greatest figure of 20th-century developmental
psychology; he was the first to perform rigorous studies of the way in which children learn and come to understand
and respond to the world around them. He is most famous for his theory of four stages of development:
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. His most famous works are The
Language and Thought of a Child and The Origins of Intelligence in Children.
8.
Erik Erikson (German-born American, 1902-1994) Erik Erikson is best known for his theories on how social
institutions reflect the universal features of psychosocial development; in particular, how different societies create
different traditions and ideas to accommodate the same biological needs. He created a notable eight-stage
development process and wrote several "psychohistories" explaining how people like Martin Luther and Mahatma
Gandhi were able to think and act the way they did.
9.
Abraham Maslow (American, 1908-1970) Abraham Maslow is principally known for two works, Motivation and
Personality and Toward a Psychology of Being, that introduced his theory of the "hierarchy of needs" (food, shelter,
love, esteem, etc.) and its pinnacle, the need for "self-actualization." Self-actualized people are those who understand
their individual needs and abilities and who have families, friends, and colleagues that support them and allow them
to accomplish things on which they place value. The lowest unmet need on the hierarchy tends to dominate
conscious thought.
10. Stanley Milgram (American, 1933-1984) Though he did the work that created the idea of "six degrees of separation"
and the "lost-letter" technique, he is mainly remembered for his experiments on "obedience to authority" that he
performed at Yale in 1961-1962. Milgram found that two-thirds of his subjects were willing to administer terrible
electric shocks to innocent, protesting human beings simply because a researcher told them the experimental
protocol demanded it.
You Gotta Know These Russian Tsars
1.
Peter I (1672-1725; ruled 1682-1725) Peter the Great is famous both for his push for Westernization and for his
boisterous personality. His Grand Embassy to Europe enabled him to learn about Western life (and even to work in a
Dutch shipyard); he later invited Western artisans to come to Russia, required the boyars to shave their beards and
wear Western clothing, and even founded a new capital, St. Petersburg--his "window on the West." He also led his
country in the Great Northern War (in which Charles XII of Sweden was defeated at Poltava), created a Table of
Ranks for the nobility, and reformed the bureaucracy and army. But Peter could also be violent and cruel: he
personally participated in the torture of the streltsy, or musketeers, who rebelled against him, and had his own son
executed.
2.
Ivan IV (1530-1584; ruled 1533-1584) Ivan IV is known in the West as "Ivan the Terrible," but his Russian nickname
("Groznyi") could be more accurately translated as "awe-inspiring" or "menacing." Ivan was proclaimed Grand
Prince of Muscovy 1533 and tsar in 1547. Scholars differ on whether Ivan was literate and on how auspiciously his
reign began. Early in his reign, he pushed through a series of well-received reforms and called a zemskii sobor (or
"assembly of the land"), but Ivan had an amazingly cruel streak and eventually became unstable: he temporarily
abdicated in 1564, killed his favorite son, created a state-within-the-state called the oprichnina to wage war on the
boyars, and participated in the torture of his enemies. Ivan combined the absolutist tendencies of his predecessors
with his own violent personality, helping to plunge the country into the subsequent period of civil strife known as
the "Time of Troubles."
3.
Catherine II (1729-1796; ruled 1762-1796) Catherine the Great wasn't really a Russian at all: she was born Sophie
of Anhalt-Zerbst (a minor German principality) and was chosen as the bride of the future Peter III. She had
thoroughly Russianized herself by the time Peter became tsar, and soon had him deposed: she then dispatched
several claimants to the throne and crushed a peasant uprising led by Emilian Pugachev. She also corresponded with
Enlightenment philosophes, granted charters of rights and obligations to the nobility and the towns, oversaw the
partition of Poland, and expanded the empire. Catherine is well known for her extravagant love life: her 21
acknowledged lovers included Grigorii Potemkin (who constructed the famous Potemkin village on an imperial
inspection tour).
4.
Nicholas II (1868-1918; ruled 1894-1917) Nicholas II, the last of the Romanovs, ruled until his overthrow in the
February Revolution of 1917. He is usually seen as both a kind man who loved his family and an incapable monarch
who helped bring about the end of the tsarist state; he led his country through two disastrous wars, the RussoJapanese War (which helped spark the Revolution of 1905), and World War I (which helped cause the 1917
revolutions.) He is best known for his loving marriage to Alexandra and for allowing the crazed monk Grigorii
Rasputin to influence court politics while treating the hemophilia of Alexei, the heir to the throne. Nicholas abdicated
in 1917 and was shot in 1918.
5.
Alexander II (1818-1881; ruled 1855-1881) Alexander II embarked on a program of Great Reforms soon after
taking the throne near the end of the Crimean War. The most famous part of his program was the serf emancipation
of 1861--a reform which occurred almost simultaneously with the end of American slavery (and whose gradual
nature disappointed liberals.) But he also introduced a system of local governing bodies called zemstvos, tried to
increase the rule of law in the court system, eased censorship, and reorganized the army. Alexander became more
reactionary after an attempted 1866 assassination and was assassinated in 1881.
6.
Alexander I (1777-1825; ruled 1801-1825) Alexander I took the throne in 1801 when his repressive father Paul was
assassinated and immediately set out on a more liberal course, but he left his strongest supporters disappointed. He
is best known for his wars with Napoleon (first as an ally and then as an enemy), and for seeking to establish a Holy
Alliance in the years that followed. Alexander was an eccentric and a religious mystic. Some even say that he didn't
really die in 1825: instead, they argue, he faked his own death, became a hermit, and died in a monastery in 1864.
7.
Nicholas I (1796-1855; ruled 1825-1855) Nicholas I, who ruled Russia from the failure of the Decembrist Uprising
to the middle of the Crimean War, has traditionally been portrayed as the embodiment of the Russian autocracy. His
government pursued a policy of Official Nationality, defending a holy trinity of "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and
Nationality," and established a repressive secret police force known as the Third Section. Contemporaries referred to
him as the "Gendarme of Europe" after he helped the Habsburgs squelch the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.
8.
Alexander III (1845-1894; ruled 1881-1894) Those who hoped that the assassination of Alexander II would lead to
liberalization saw the error of their ways when the new tsar, Alexander III, launched his program of "counterreforms." Under him, the state enacted a series of Temporary Regulations (giving it the power to crack down on
terrorism), increased censorship, tightened controls on Russia's universities, created a position of "land captain" to
exert state control in the countryside, and either encouraged or ignored the first anti-Jewish pogroms.
9.
Boris Godunov (ca. 1551-1605; ruled 1598-1605) Boris Godunov began his career as a boyar in Ivan the Terrible's
oprichnina, and eventually became tsar himself. Boris first cemented his influence by marrying a daughter of one of
Ivan's court favorites and arranging his sister Irina's marriage to Ivan's son Fyodor; then he became regent under
Fyodor, and was elected tsar when Fyodor died in 1598. But Boris was rumored to have arranged the murder of
Fyodor's brother Dmitrii, and the first of several "False Dmitriis" launched a revolt against him. Boris died in the
midst of growing unrest and is now best known as the subject of a Pushkin play and a Mussorgsky opera.
10. Michael (1597-1645; ruled 1613-1645) In 1613, near the end of the Time of Troubles, a zemskii sobor elected the
16-year-old Michael Romanov as the new tsar. Michael was a grandnephew of Ivan the Terrible's "good" wife
Anastasia and the son of a powerful churchman named Filaret (who soon became patriarch); as tsar, he has usually
been seen as a nonentity dominated by Filaret and other relatives. Nevertheless, his election marked the return of
relative stability and the succession of the Romanov dynasty.
You Gotta Know These medieval Islamic dynasties
Most of NAQT's You Gotta Know articles are targeted at high school and novice collegiate players, but this one has a narrower
focus and is aimed at experienced collegiate teams. Islamic history is not a major subject in the NAQT distribution, but it is a
fascinating one; these nine dynasties cover much of what is frequently asked.
1.
Umayyad The Umayyads ruled as caliphs from Damascus from 661-750. They came to power in the civil war
following the death of Uthman when Mu'awiyah Ibn Abu Sufyan defeated the forces of Ali Ibn Abi Talib after the
latter's assassination. Denounced in traditional Islamic historiography for their secular rule, they introduced
hereditary transmission of office into Islam and favored Arabs at the expense of other Muslims. Under 'Abd al-Malik,
the Umayyad Mosque was constructed in Damascus. In the 10th century, an Umayyad scion re-established the
dynasty in Cordoba, Spain.
2.
Abbasid The Abbasids reigned as caliphs from Baghdad from 750-1258, and later from Cairo from 1261-1517. They
rode to power on widespread disaffection with the Umayyads and the sense that a member of the Prophet's family
was best qualified to lead the community. Their greatest rulers were al-Mansur, Harun ar-Rashid, and al-Mamun the
Great. During the 9th century, however, power began to devolve onto increasingly autonomous local dynasties, and
the Abbasids fell under the control of outside forces such as the Buyids and Seljuqs. When the Mongols destroyed
Baghdad in 1258, the caliph as-Mustazim was wrapped in a carpet and trampled to death by horses.
3.
Fatimid The Fatimids were Isma'ili Shi'ite Imams who founded their state in North Africa in 909 under the caliph alMahdi. They conquered Egypt in 969 under al-Muizz and built Cairo, becoming the Abbasids' rivals. At its height their
regime reached into Yemen and Syria, and they had a network of missionaries spreading Isma'ili doctrines into
Abbasid territory and beyond. In the eleventh century, the caliph al-Hakim, considered insane, disappeared, giving
rise to the Druze religion. A later succession dispute gave rise to the sect of the Assassins. The last caliph, al-Adil, died
in 1171.
4.
Seljuq The Seljuqs were a family of Ghuzz Turks who invaded the Middle East in the eleventh century and came to
control the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. Following their defeat of the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071,
they settled in Anatolia as well, where they founded the Sultanate of Rum. Following the Central Asian model of
"collective sovereignty," they divided territory among the ruling family, which prevented strong political unity. Their
rule saw the beginning of the Sunni revival and the spread of religious schools called madrasas in the Islamic world,
giving uniformity to elite beliefs and practices. By 1200 their power was all but extinct.
5.
Ayyubid The Ayyubids were Kurds who took control of Egypt under the Zengids. In 1171 Salah ad-Din (Saladin)
abolished the Fatimid caliphate, and later took Damascus as well. He retook Jerusalem from the Crusader kingdoms;
however, subsequent Crusades undid some of these gains. It was in Ayyubid times that the Sunni revival came to
Egypt. The sultan al-Kamil gave Jerusalem to Frederick II in a peace treaty and was visited by St. Francis of Assisi.
The Ayyubids followed the practice of collective sovereignty, and were often politically divided. The woman Shajar
ad-Durr was the last to rule Egypt.
6.
Mamluk The Mamluks were slave soldiers of foreign origin who deposed the Ayyubids in 1250. Baybars, who turned
back the Mongols at the Battle of Ayn Jalut, is a popular figure in Arabic heroic literature. In 1291 they drove the last
Crusaders from Palestine. Their reign is divided into a "Bahri" period from 1250-1382 and a "Circassian" period from
1382-1517. They were defeated by the Ottomans, who conquered Egypt in 1517.
7.
Ottoman The Ottomans were Turks of uncertain origin who conquered the Balkans and the Middle East and brought
the central Islamic lands into the European state system. Their key military victories were the defeat of the Serbs in
the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, the capture of Constantinople in 1453, and the defeat of the Mamluks in 1517. During
the 15th century their lands replaced Palestine as the major target of the Crusades. They reached their height under
Suleyman the Magnificient, who beseiged Vienna in 1529. The empire's remnants became Turkey after World War I.
8.
Mughal The Mughals ruled most of India from the early 16th until the mid-18th century, and claimed descent from
both Genghis Khan and Tamerlane. Their empire was founded by Babur and expanded under his grandson Akbar.
The Taj Mahal was built under Shah Jahan, who brought the empire to the brink of bankruptcy. Aurangzeb excluded
Hindus from public office, and the empire began to break up soon after his death in 1707.
9.
Safavid The Safavids were founded by a Sunni Sufi (mystic) order under Shah Ismail, and ruled Iran from 1502 until
1736. They forcibly converted Iran to Shi'ism, and later converted themselves (this sounds strange, and is--it's one of
history's mysteries). Together with the Ottomans and Mughals, they form the three "Gunpowder Empires" in what
Islamicists consider the late medieval period. Under Abbas I, a European expert was hired to reform the military
following defeats by both their Ottoman and Uzbek rivals. Abbas later captured Baghdad and expelled the Portugese
from the Persian Gulf. Esfahan was their capital during their height.
You Gotta Know These British Monarchs
1.
Henry VIII (1491-1547, r. 1509-1547) House of Tudor. The son of Tudor founder Henry VII, he brought England into
both the Renaissance and the Reformation. Henry patronized the philosopher Erasmus, the painter Hans Holbein the
Younger, and the writer Thomas More. Originally a supporter of the Catholic Church--the Pope had named him
"Defender of the Faith"--he named himself head of the Church of England in 1533 so that he could divorce Catherine
of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn. Henry executed top ministers who crossed him, including Thomas Cromwell and
Thomas More. He married six times, but only his third wife, Jane Seymour, bore him a son, the sickly Edward VI.
2.
Elizabeth I (1533-1603, r. 1558-1603) House of Tudor. Known as the "Virgin Queen" because she never married, as
Henry VIII's daughter by Anne Boleyn, the Catholic Church considered her illegitimate. After the death of her Catholic
sister Mary I, Elizabeth I tried to restore religious order by declaring England a Protestant state but naming herself
only "Governor" of the Church. She foiled attempts at her throne by Spanish king Philip II and Mary, Queen of Scots;
the latter Elizabeth reluctantly executed in 1587. Her reign saw great expansion of the English navy and the
emergence of William Shakespeare, but when she died, the Crown went to Scottish king James VI, the son of Mary,
Queen of Scots.
3.
George III (1738-1820, r. 1760-1820) House of Hanover. Though he lost the American colonies in the Revolutionary
War, Britain's economic empire expanded during his reign. While George's ministers kept their lives, they fell from
power frequently, including both William Pitts, Lord Bute, and Lord North. Popular at home, he suffered from
porphyria, causing the "madness" that ultimately led to the Regency period (1811-1820) of his son George IV.
4.
(Alexandrina) Victoria (1819-1901, r. 1837-1901; Empress of India 1876-1901) House of Hanover. The longestreigning monarch in British history, she relinquished much of the remaining royal power, both to her husband Albert
and to her favored prime ministers, Lord Melbourne, Robert Peel, and Benjamin Disraeli. After Albert's death in
1861, Victoria largely went into seclusion, though she influenced the passage of the Reform Act of 1867, which
doubled the number of Britons who could vote.
5.
William I (the Conqueror) (1028-1087, r. 1066-1087) House of Normandy. Duke of Normandy from 1035, he was
promised succession to the throne by Edward the Confessor, but when Edward gave the throne to Harold II in 1066,
William invaded England, killing Harold and defeating the Anglo-Saxons at the Battle of Hastings. An able
administrator, he authorized a survey of his kingdom in the 1086 Domesday Book. By that time William had replaced
Anglo-Saxon nobles and clergy with Normans and other continentals.
6.
Charles I (1600-1649, r. 1625-1649) House of Stuart. The last absolute English monarch, Charles ran into trouble
almost immediately. His minister, the Duke of Buckingham, asked Parliament for money to fight costly foreign wars,
and when Parliament balked, Charles had to sign the Petition of Right. From 1630 to 1641 he tried to rule solo, but
financial troubles forced him to call the Short and Long Parliaments. His attempt to reform the Scottish Church was
the last straw, as Parliament entered into the English Civil War. They defeated Charles, convicting him of treason and
executing him. England became a Commonwealth with Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector.
7.
James I (1566-1625, r. 1603-1625) House of Stuart. At age one James succeeded his mother Mary as King James VI of
Scotland. As the great-great-grandson of Henry VII, he claimed the English throne upon the death of Elizabeth I.
James was the intended target of Catholic fanatic Guy Fawkes' failed Gunpowder Plot in 1605. A believer in
absolutism, James dissolved Parliament from 1611 to 1621, favoring ministers Robert Cecil and the Duke of
Buckingham instead. His rule saw English expansion into North America, through royal charter in Virginia and
Puritan protest in Massachusetts.
8.
Richard III (1452-1485, r. 1483-1485) House of York. He was made Duke of Gloucester in 1461 when his brother
Edward IV deposed the Lancastrian king Henry VI, as part of the Wars of the Roses. Upon Edward's death in 1483,
Richard served as regent to his nephew Edward V, but likely had the boy murdered in the Tower of London that year.
Two years later, Richard died at the hands of Henry Tudor's Lancastrian forces at Bosworth Field, ending the Wars of
the Roses and beginning the reign of Henry VII.
9.
Elizabeth II (1926-present, r. 1952-present) House of Windsor. Representative of the modern ceremonial monarchy,
she and her husband "Prince" Philip Mountbatten have traveled the globe representing British interests. Marital
failures by her sons Charles (the Prince of Wales) and Andrew have plagued her reign.
10. John Lackland (1167-1216, r. 1199-1216) House of Plantagenet. Though he tried to seize the crown from his brother
Richard while the latter was in Germany, Richard forgave John and made him his successor. Excommunicated by the
Pope for four years for refusing to accept Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury, John was also weak as a
fighter, as French King Philip II routed him at Bouvines in 1214. A year later, England's barons forced John to sign the
Magna Carta at Runnymede, an event that marked the beginning of the development of the British constitution.
11. Charles II (1630-1685; r. 1660-1685) House of Stuart. While Cromwell ruled the Commonwealth, Charles was
crowned King of Scotland in 1651. After Cromwell died, Charles used the Declaration of Breda to restore himself to
the English throne. He fought two lackluster wars against the Dutch, and needed protection from Louis XIV through
the Treaty of Dover. His wife Catherine of Braganza produced no legitimate heirs, but this "Merry Monarch" has as
many as 14 illegitimate children. Tolerant of Catholics, he dissolved Parliament over the issue in 1681 and refused to
prevent his brother James from succeeding him.
12. James II (1633-1701; r. 1685-1688) House of Stuart. The 1678 Popish Plot against Charles II would have elevated
the Roman Catholic James to the throne, had it been real and not fabricated by Titus Oates. James's three years,
however, did feature heavy favoritism toward Catholics, so much so that Protestants invited James's son-in-law
William of Orange to rule England, deposing James in the bloodless Glorious Revolution. Exiled to Louis XIV's court,
he made an attempt to regain his crown in 1690 but was routed at the Battle of the Boyne.
13. Henry II (1133-1189; r. 1154-1189) House of Plantagenet. The son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Matilda, he married
Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152, and invaded England the following year, forcing Stephen of Blois to acknowledge
Henry as his heir. While king he developed the common law and due process, but fought with Thomas (à) Becket
over submission to the Pope; Henry had Becket executed in 1170 but performed penance at Canterbury. Eleanor and
his four sons conspired with French king Philip II against Henry on several occasions.
14. Richard I (the Lion-Hearted) (1157-1199; r. 1189-1199) House of Plantagenet. Third son of Henry II, he spent only
five months of his reign in England. He went on the Third Crusade to Jerusalem, winning many victories in the Holy
Land, but on his way back was captured and ransomed by Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI. He also fought Philip II in
Normandy, and died while defending his possessions in Aquitaine.
15. Alfred the Great (849-899; r. 871-899) Saxon House. Actually just the King of Wessex in southwestern England, he
expelled the rival Danes from the Mercian town of London in 886, eventually conquering most of the Danelaw
territory. Alfred also kept England from the worst of the Dark Ages by encouraging his bishops to foster literacy; in
addition, he translated Boethius, Augustine, and the Venerable Bede's works into Anglo-Saxon.
You Gotta Know These Religious Texts
This list of religious works from around the world specifically excludes the Old Testament and the New Testament, which will
be the subject of an upcoming You Gotta Know article.
1.
Analects One of the "Four Books" used by the ancient Chinese for civil service study, it contains the sayings
(aphorisms) of Confucius. The philosopher Confucius did not write or edit the words that make up the Analects; his
disciples compiled them in the 5th or 4th century BC. Confucianism is more of a philosophical system than a religion,
and Confucius thought of himself more as a teacher than as a spiritual leader. The Analects also contain some of the
basic ideas found in Confucianism, such as ren (benevolence) and li (proper conduct).
2.
Apocrypha Protestants and Jews assign lower authority to the Apocrypha because it was written between 300 and
100 BC, but Catholics and Orthodox Christians consider the books that make up the Apocrypha to be
"deuterocanonical," meaning that they are just as important and divinely-inspired as other parts of the Old
Testament. "Apocryphal" in general means "something outside an accepted canon," and, in particular, in ancient
Greek it meant "hidden things." Scholars differ as to which books make up the Apocrypha, but Tobit, Judith, 1 and 2
Maccabees, Wisdom, Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus), and Baruch are almost always included.
3.
Avesta (or Zend-Avesta) Sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism. It consists of five parts: Gathas (poems written by
Zoroaster), Visparat (homages to spiritual leaders), Vendidad (legal and medical doctrine), Yashts (hymns to angels
and heroes), and Khurda (lesser rituals and hymns). The Gathas may be as old as the 7th century BC, when Zoroaster
is thought to have lived, but most of the Avesta was put together by the Sassanid Persian dynasty, between 200 and
640. Zoroastrianism centers on the eternal struggle between a good entity (Ahura Mazda, or Ormuzd) and its evil
counterpart (Angra Mainyu, or Ahriman); the religion is still practiced by about 120,000 Parsees in Bombay and a
few thousand adherents in Iran and Iraq.
4.
Bhagavad-Gita Sanskrit for "The Song of God," it is a poem found in Book Six of the Hindu epic Mahabharata. Likely
formalized in the 1st or 2nd century, the Bhagavad-Gita begins on the eve of a battle, when the prince Arjuna asks his
charioteer Krishna (an avatar of Vishnu) about responsibility in dealing with the suffering that impending battle will
cause. Krishna tells Arjuna that humans possess a divine self within a material form, and that Arjuna's duty is to love
God and do what is right without thinking of personal gain--some of the main tenets of Hinduism.
5.
Dao de Jing (or Tao Te Ching or The Way and Its Power) Philosophical text behind Daoism, a religion-philosophy
founded by the semi-legendary Laozi in the sixth century BC, though scholars now believe it was written about 200
years later, during the Warring States period of the late Zhou Dynasty. The Dao de Jing instructs adherents in
restraint and passiveness, allowing the natural order of the universe to take precedent.
6.
Hadith A hadith is a report of the words or actions of a Muslim religious figure, most frequently the Prophet
Muhammad. Each consists of a matn, or text of the original oral law itself, as well as an isnad, or chain of authorities
through which it has been passed by word of mouth through the generations. Collectively, the hadith point Muslims
toward the Sunna, or practice of the Prophet, which together with the Qur'an forms the basis for shari'a , usually
translated as Islamic law.
7.
Book of Mormon Published in 1830 by the founder of the Mormon Church, Joseph Smith. Mormons believe that the
prophet Moroni revealed the location of the Book of Mormon to Smith, and then Smith translated it from a "reformed
Egyptian" language. The Book of Mormon is inscribed on thin gold plates, and documents the history of a group of
Hebrews who migrated to America around 600 BC. This group divided into two tribes: the Lamanites (ancestors of
American Indians), and the highly civilized Nephites, a chosen people instructed by Jesus but killed by the Lamanites
around 421.
8.
Qur'an (or Koran) Arabic for "recitation," it is the most sacred scripture of Islam. The Qur'an is subdivided into 114
chapters, called suras, which, with the exception of the first one, are arranged in descending order of length.
According to Muslim belief, the angel Jibril [Gabriel] visited the prophet Muhammad in 610 and revealed the work to
him. Various suras discuss absolute submission to Allah [God], happiness in Heaven versus torture in Hell, and the
mercy, compassion, and justice of Allah. The third caliph, Uthman (644-656), formalized the text after many of his
oral reciters were killed in battle.
9.
Talmud Hebrew for "instruction," the Talmud is a codification of Jewish oral and written law, based on the Torah. It
consists of the Mishnah (the laws themselves), and the Gemara (scholarly commentary on the Mishnah). The Gemara
developed in two Judaic centers: Palestine and Babylonia, so there are two Talmuds (Palestinian and Babylonian),
the latter considered more authoritative by Orthodox Jews. Rabbis and lay scholars finished the Babylonian Talmud
around 600.
10. Upanishads Also called Vedanta, or "last part of the Vedas," the Upanishads were written in Sanskrit between 900
and 500 BC. Part poetry but mainly prose, the earlier Upanishads laid the foundation for the development of several
key Hindu ideas, such as connecting the individual soul (atman) with the universal soul (Brahman). Spiritual release,
or moksha, could be achieved through meditation and asceticism. The name "Upanishads" means "to sit down close,"
as pupils did when a teacher recited them.
11. Vedas Consist strictly of four hymnbooks: the Rig (prayers in verse), Sama (musical melodies), Yajur (prose
prayers), and Atharva (spells and incantations). Each Veda, though, also contains a Brahmana (interpretation), and
the Vedas also incorporate treatises on meditation (Aranyakas) as well as the Upanishads. Written in an archaic form
of Sanskrit by early Aryan invaders, possibly between 1500 and 1200 BC, the Vedas concentrate on sacrifices to
deities, such as Indra (god of thunder), Varuna (cosmic order), and Agni (fire). The major gods Vishnu and Shiva
appear as minor deities in the Vedas; their elevation, as well as the concept of karma, does not develop until the
Upanishads.
12. Yijing (or I Ching or Book of Changes) The basis for ancient Chinese philosophy and religion, the Yijing was
created between 1500 and 1000 BC, though legend has it that the dragon-emperor Fuxi derived its eight trigrams
from a turtle shell. The trigrams consist of three either broken (yin) or unbroken (yang) lines, and by reading pairs of
these trigrams randomly, one could learn about humans, the universe, and the meaning of life. Qin emperor Shi
Huangdi burned most scholarly books, but the Yijing escaped because it was not seen as threatening.
You Gotta Know These American Warships
The following list of nine American warships includes eight of the most important or interesting ships in the U.S. Navy, as well
as one from the navy of the Confederate States of America. Though there are some ships that were more involved in battle,
these mark significant advancements in naval technology or turning points in U.S. history; most importantly, they are the
ships that come up most frequently in quiz bowl.
1.
USS Constitution Better known as "Old Ironsides," the Constitution was one of the first six ships commissioned by
the U.S. Navy after the American Revolution. Launched from Boston in 1797, the Constitution first saw action as the
squadron flagship in the Quasi-War with France from 1799-1801 and also fought in the Barbary War and the War of
1812. She later served many years as the nation's flagship in the Mediterranean. Retired from active duty in 1846,
the words of Oliver Wendell Holmes' "Old Ironsides" saved her from the scrap yard--she became the training ship of
the U.S. Naval Academy until the mid-1880s. She became the symbolic flagship of the U.S. Navy in 1940 and is now a
floating museum in Boston.
2.
USS Chesapeake The USS Chesapeake was built at what is now the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, between 1798 and 1799.
The Chesapeake was attacked by the British Leopard off Cape Henry in 1807 (which led to the duel between
Commodores James Barron and Stephen Decatur), one of the causes of the War of 1812. She was captured off Boston
in 1813 by the British frigate Shannon, on which occasion her commander, Capt. James Lawrence, uttered his
celebrated dying words, "Don't give up the ship," which have become a tradition in the U.S. Navy.
3.
USS Lawrence/USS Niagara Oliver Hazard Perry's decisive victory over the British fleet in the Battle of Lake Erie on
September 10, 1813 ensured American control of the Great Lakes during the War of 1812. In the battle, Perry's
flagship, the USS Lawrence, was severely damaged and four-fifths of her crew killed or wounded. Commodore Perry
and a small contingent rowed a half-mile through heavy gunfire to another American ship, the USS Niagara. Boarding
and taking command, he brought her into battle and soundly defeated the British fleet. Perry summarized the fight in
a now-famous message to General William Henry Harrison: "We have met the enemy and they are ours."
4.
USS Monitor/CSS Virginia [aka USS Merrimack] After departing Union forces burned the Gosport Navy Yard in
Norfolk in April 1861, yard workers salvaged the USS Merrimack and converted her into the ironclad CSS Virginia. On
March 8, 1862, the CSS Virginia left the shipyard and sank two Union warships in Hampton Roads. The South's
ironclad rammed and sank the USS Cumberland and set fire to and sank the USS Congress, one of the nation's first six
frigates. The Monitor was sent to end its rampage and the two ironclads battled for 3 1/2 hours before the Virginia
ran aground in its attempt to ram the USS Minnesota. Visibly damaged, the Virginia retreated and the Monitor
withdrew to protect the Minnesota. The Confederates destroyed the Virginia soon after to prevent her capture by
Union forces. The Monitor, victorious in her first battle, sank in a storm off Cape Hatteras, NC. The shipwreck is a
national underwater sanctuary under the purview of the NOAA.
5.
USS Maine (ACR-1) [Second class] The first Maine, a second-class armored battleship was launched in 1889. A part
of the "Great White Fleet," in 1897 the Maine sailed for Havana to show the flag and protect American citizens.
Shortly after 9:40 pm on February 15, 1898, the battleship was torn apart by a tremendous explosion. The court of
inquiry convened in March was unable to obtain evidence associating the blast with any person or persons, but
public opinion--inflamed by "yellow journalism"--was such that the Maine disaster led to the declaration of war on
Spain on April 21, 1898.
6.
USS Arizona (BB-39) [Pennsylvania class] A lead ship of the honor escort for President Wilson's trip to France in
1918, she was on Battleship Row at Pearl Harbor when Japanese aircraft appeared just before 8:00 am on Sunday,
December 7, 1941. The Arizona came under attack almost immediately, and at about 8:10 was hit by an 800kilogram bomb just forward of turret two on the starboard side. Within a few seconds the forward powder
magazines exploded, killing 1,177 of the crew, and the ship sank to the bottom of the harbor. In 1962 the USS Arizona
memorial opened and is now administered by the National Park Service.
7.
USS Missouri (BB-63) [Iowa class] The fourth USS Missouri was the last battleship completed by the United States;
she was laid down January 6, 1941 by New York Naval Shipyard. The Missouri was launched January 29, 1944 and
received her sponsorship from Miss Margaret Truman, daughter of then Missouri Senator, Harry S Truman.
Commissioned on June 11, 1944, the "Mighty Mo," as she became known, sailed for the Pacific and quickly became
the flagship of Admiral Halsey, which is why she was chosen as the site of the formal surrender of the Empire of
Japan on the morning of September 1, 1945.
8.
USS Nautilus (SSN-571) [Nautilus class] In 1951 Congress authorized construction of the world's first nuclearpowered submarine. On December 12 of that year, the Navy Department announced that she would be the sixth ship
of the fleet to bear the name Nautilus. She was launched on January 21, 1954. Eight months later, on September 30,
1954, the Nautilus became the first commissioned nuclear-powered ship in the U.S. Navy. On the morning of January
17, 1955, Nautilus' Cmdr. Wilkinson signaled "Underway on Nuclear Power." In 1958 she departed Pearl Harbor
under top secret orders to conduct "Operation Sunshine," the first crossing of the North Pole by a ship.
You Gotta Know These Civil War Battles and Campaigns
1.
Fort Sumter (April 12, 1861). Built on an island in 1829, the fort was one of three that the United States maintained
in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In order to claim true independence from the Union, Jefferson Davis
decided that the forts needed to be taken; a Confederate force under P.G.T. Beauregard ordered the small Union
garrison, controlled by Major Robert Anderson, to surrender. Anderson refused, shots were fired, and the Union
commander surrendered two days later, with only one soldier killed. The Union made two unsuccessful attempts to
recapture the fort with ironclad ships in 1863, but Confederate forces finally abandoned Sumter when they left
Charleston in February 1865.
2.
First Bull Run / First Manassas (July 21, 1861). Fought at a creek near Manassas, Virginia (30 miles west of
Washington D.C.), this was the first major showdown of the war. Beauregard led an army against Union commander
Irwin McDowell and received reinforcements from Joseph Johnston's troops (whom Union General Robert Patterson
failed to detain). The Confederacy routed the Union when Thomas Jackson's brigade held the left line at Henry House
Hill; this effort earned him the nickname "Stonewall." Congressmen and reporters, who had expected to watch a
Union victory, fled in panic back to D.C.
3.
Hampton Roads (March 9, 1862). A channel in southeastern Virginia was the site of the first major fight between
two ironclad ships. The Confederates raised an old wooden boat, the Merrimack, and fit it with ten guns and iron
armor plates. Renaming the Virginia, it was captained by Franklin Buchanan. The Union countered by constructing a
large oval with a rotating gun, called the Monitor and piloted by John Worden. The Virginia tore through Union
wooden ships (Cumberland, Congress, Minnesota) but when the Monitor arrived, the two ironclads fought to a
stalemate - thus the Union maintained its blockade. The South deliberately destroyed the Virginia two months later,
while the Monitor sank in a storm off Cape Hatteras in December 1862.
4.
Shiloh / Pittsburg Landing (April 6-7, 1862). This was named after a church in Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee (100
miles southwest of Nashville). Confederate commander Albert Sidney Johnston led a force north from Corinth,
Mississippi. Ulysses S. Grant, who had just captured Fort Donelson, brought five Union divisions to face him. At first,
the South led the attack, but Union troops held the "Hornets' Nest" for hours, killing Johnston in the process.
Beauregard took over, but by the second day Northern Generals Don Carlos Buell and Lew Wallace (who wrote BenHur) brought reinforcements, causing the Confederates to retreat. More than 13,000 Union and 10,000 Confederate
soldiers lost their lives.
5.
Peninsular Campaign (March - July 1862). Union commander George McClellan devised this plan to capture the
Confederate capital at Richmond, Virginia by sending 110,000 men up the peninsula between the York and James
rivers. Advised of Northern maneuvers, Southern commander Joseph Johnston detached a force to defend the
peninsula. He also sent a small unit (led by Stonewall Jackson) that crushed Union reinforcements in the West. After
Johnston was wounded at Seven Pines (June 1), Davis replaced him with Robert E. Lee. Lee concentrated his force
north of the Chickahominy River; in the Seven Days' Battles (June 25-July 1), the Confederates broke through Union
defenses, leading to McClellan's retreat down the James toward Harrison's Landing, and failure of the campaign.
6.
Second Bull Run / Second Manassas (August 29-30, 1862). This resounding victory by Lee and Jackson pushed
Union forces back to Washington, D.C. President Lincoln had replaced McClellan with John Pope, who would
supposedly be united with the Army of the Potomac, commanded by Henry Halleck. Lee maneuvered Jackson's
troops behind those of Pope; Jackson detained Pope's men at Manassas while Lee sent James Longstreet to crush
Pope's left flank. Halleck's army was supposed to land at Aquia, but instead retreated to defend Washington, ceding
all of Virginia to the Confederacy and marking a low point in the Union effort.
7.
Antietam / Sharpsburg (September 17, 1862). The bloodiest day of the Civil War: 12,000 Union men lost their lives,
as did 10,000 Confederates. Lee planned a northern invasion into Maryland but a Union soldier discovered those
battle plans wrapped around three cigars. Instead, Lee marched his army toward Sharpsburg Creek. Meanwhile,
Jackson's forces captured Harper's Ferry, Virginia, and rushed to reunite with Lee. McClellan had a large enough
force to capture the entire rebel army but did not use all of his troops nor coordinate one solid attack. Antietam thus
was actually a series of five skirmishes; in one of them, dubbed "The Bloody Lane," 2000 Union soldiers fell in a few
minutes. As it was, Union forces drove the Confederates back across the Potomac.
8.
Fredericksburg / Marye's Heights (December 13, 1862). At this site, about 50 miles south of Washington, Union
commander Ambrose Burnside (who had replaced McClellan) tried to take the initiative and cross the Rappahannock
River in a march toward Richmond. He met Lee's forces, which were well entrenched in the hills behind the town.
With a superior position, Lee routed the Union army; 13,000 Northern troops fell there, while only 5000
Confederates were killed. After the battle, Burnside's troops were forced to make "The Mud March" up the
Rappahannock, made foul by weather and dead and wounded bodies.
9.
Vicksburg Campaign (April 29 - July 4, 1863). This campaign was launched by Grant to take control of the
Mississippi River and cut off the western Confederate states from the east. Grant ordered regiments led by James
McPherson, John McClernand, and William Tecumseh Sherman through bayous west of the Mississippi to Hard
Times. They were up against rebel forces under Joseph Johnston and John Pemberton. Sherman and McPherson
drove Johnston from Jackson, Mississippi on May 14, and the Union scored a victory at Champion's Hill two days
later, but could not drive the Southerners out of Vicksburg, so Grant laid siege to the town. Outnumbered 71,000 to
20,000 and on the brink of starvation, Pemberton finally surrendered his men; Johnston withdrew east.
10. Chancellorsville (May 1-4, 1863). Victory for the South, but with great cost, as Stonewall Jackson lost his life.
Lincoln called on "Fighting Joe" Hooker to command the Union army; Hooker took a force of 134,000 and provoked
Lee and Jackson's 60,000 men into battle. Jackson moved around Hooker and counterattacked the Union flank on
May 2. That night, while Jackson was on reconnaissance, his own men mistook him for a Northerner and shot him; he
died of pneumonia eight days later. The following morning, a cannonball blast hit the Chancellor House, knocking
Hooker unconscious; Union troops led by John Sedgwick then retreated. Casualties for the North outnumbered those
of the South, 17,000 to 13,000.
11. Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863). This marked both the farthest northward advancement by the Confederacy and the
turning point that led to its defeat. Lee, along with Longstreet, A.P. Hill, and Richard Ewell, led the southern
Pennsylvania attack; J.E.B. Stuart was supposed to monitor Union movement with his cavalry but strayed so far east
of Gettysburg that his force did not return (exhausted) until the second day. George Meade replaced Hooker as leader
of the Union side; Southern forces drove Northerners through the town but could not secure key positions at
Cemetery Ridge and Little and Big Round Tops. Low on supplies, on the final day Lee ordered an attack on the center;
George Pickett led his famous "charge" through open fields, where the Union mowed down one-third of his 15,000
men. The Confederates lost 20,000 and Lee retreated to Virginia.
12. Chattanooga Campaign (September-November 1863). It began when Union General William Rosecrans forced
Confederate commander Braxton Bragg out of the city on September 9. Ten days later, at Chickamauga (in Georgia),
Bragg and Longstreet turned the tables by whipping Rosecrans, forcing him into a siege position at Chattanooga.
Only George Thomas (the "Rock of Chickamauga") saved Rosecrans from annihilation. Well-developed railroad
networks, however, allowed Grant, Hooker, and Sherman to bring reinforcements. On November 24, Hooker took
Lookout Mountain in the southwest, in the "Battle Above the Clouds." The next day, Thomas ran right over the
Southern force at Missionary Ridge, securing Tennessee for the North.
13. Wilderness Campaign (May 5 - June 12, 1864). The first clash between Grant and Lee, this series of conflicts started
with the Battle of the Wilderness (50 miles northwest of Richmond), where Southern leaders A.P. Hill and Ewell held
the line, and over 17,000 Northerners fell. At Spotsylvania Court House, Meade assaulted Lee's men, but they
repelled Meade at the "Bloody Angle." The trenches in which much of the fighting took place were similar to those
later seen in World War I. Advancing within ten miles of Richmond, Grant met Lee at Cold Harbor (June 3); he lost
7,000 men to Lee's 1,500 and withdrew across the James River, but with the entire campaign he severely reduced
Confederate strength in a war of attrition.
14. Petersburg Campaign (June 1864 - April 1865). After Cold Harbor, Grant moved south to lay siege to this railroad
hub, 25 miles from Richmond. On July 30, Pennsylvania coal miners detonated four tons of powder in a tunnel
underneath the Confederate line; this "Battle of the Crater" killed many defenders. Although the South maintained
the city, its supplies ran thin in the winter of 1865. Grant finally destroyed the Confederate right flank at Five Forks
(April 1-2), 14 miles southwest of Petersburg. This resounding defeat led to Lee's surrender to Grant at Appomattox
Court House one week later, effectively ending the Civil War.
You Gotta Know These Jewish Holidays
1.
Rosh Hashanah Celebrated on the first and second days of Tishrei, Rosh Hashanah marks the beginning of the
Jewish year. It is believed that on this day, people's souls are judged, and God "temporarily" decides their fate.
Between Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, are the Ten Days of Repentment, when people are
given a chance to reflect and repent. On Rosh Hashanah, it is customary to wear white clothes and eat apples, honey,
and pomegranates. Other customs include the blowing of the shofar (an instrument made from a ram's horn) and the
ceremony of Tashlich, in which Jews throw bread crumbs into running water to symbolize the cleansing of their sins,
is also performed.
2.
Yom Kippur Celebrated on the tenth day of Tishrei, it is the Jewish Day of Atonement; at the end of Yom Kippur, it is
believed that one's fate is sealed. Jews are required to abstain from eating, drinking, washing, and sex. Forbidden
fashions include jewelry, makeup, and leather shoes. One traditionally wears white clothes to symbolizing purity
from sin. In the afternoon, the Book of Jonah is read. A full day of prayers begins with the Kol Nidre, an ancient
incantation that forgives Jews from vows or promises unwittingly made during the past year. As on Rosh Hashanah,
the shofar is blown.
3.
Sukkot Celebrated on the 15th of Tishrei, Sukkot commemorates the sukkot (booths) that the Israelites lived in
following the Exodus from Egypt; it also celebrates the harvest. Traditionally, Jews build booths, in which they live
and eat for seven days. In synagogue, four symbolic species (the palm, the etrog [a large yellow citrus], myrtle, and
willow) are waved in seven directions. Each night, in the sukkah, it is traditional to invite a Biblical figure to be your
guest for that night.
4.
Hanukkah This festival lasts for eight days, starting on the 25th day of Kislev (the third month). It celebrates the
victory of the small Maccabee army against the large Greek army of Antiochus, as well as the recapture and
purification of the Temple in Jerusalem (ca. 168 BC). It is traditional to light the eight-branched Menorah each night
and spin the dreidel. Exchanging presents is only a recent tradition developed in the U.S.
5.
Purim Celebrated on the 14th of Adar (the sixth month) and commemorating the victory of the Jews, led by Esther
and Mordechai, against Haman, who tried to destroy the Jews because of his anger at Mordechai. The story, recorded
in the Book of Esther (read from a one-handed scroll called a megillah), takes place in Shushan, the capital city of the
kingdom of the Persian King Ahasueras. On Purim, it is traditional to dress up, get drunk, give charity, eat triangular
pastries called hamentaschen, and exchange gifts (Mishloach Manot) with friends.
6.
Passover (Pesach) Celebrated for seven days beginning on the 15th day of Nissan (the seventh month), Passover
commemorates the Exodus from Egypt. It is also the ancient Hebrew New Year (superceded in that role by Rosh
Hashanah). On the first two days, Jews have a festival dinner called a seder, where they retell the story of the Exodus,
from a book called a hagaddah. Jews are required to abstain from eating or owning leavened bread for the duration
of the festival; matzah (usually a square flat unleavened bread) is eaten instead. On Passover, the Song of Songs is
recited. Passover also begins a cycle of seven weeks, called the Omer, a period of semi-mourning.
7.
Shavu'ot Celebrated on the sixth day of Sivan (the ninth month), the 50th day of the Omer, after Passover; the word
Shavu'ot means "weeks," hence the name Pentecost. Shavu'ot commemorates the giving of the Torah to the Israelites
at Mt. Sinai, as well as the beginning of the harvest in ancient Israel. Sukkot, Passover, and Shavu'ot are the three
pilgrimages, when Jews would all gather at the Temple each year; on Shavu'ot, Jews would dedicate their first
harvest fruits to the Temple. The Book of Ruth is read in synagogue on Shavu'ot, and it is traditional to study all night
on this festival.
8.
The Ninth of Av This is a day of mourning for the destructions of both the First and Second Temples. It is traditional
to fast and to keep oneself in a solemn mood. The Book of Lamentations and the Book of Job are read, traditionally
while sitting on the floor and with candles as the only lights, as Jews are supposed to refrain from physical comfort.
You Gotta Know These Trojan War Heroes
Greeks
1.
Agamemnon The king of Mycenae, Agamemnon shares supreme command of the Greek troops with his brother,
Menelaus. An epithet of his, "king of heroes," reflects this status. As a commander, however, he often lacks good
public relations skills, as shown by his feud with Achilles (book 1) and by his ill-considered strategy of suggesting
that all the troops go home (book 2). Upon his return home, Agamemnon is murdered by his wife, Clytemnestra, and
her lover, Aegisthus.
2.
Menelaus The king of Sparta, Menelaus is the husband of Helen, the cause celebre of the war. He tries to win Helen
back by fighting Paris in single combat but Aphrodite carried Paris off when it seems that Menelaus will win. Despite
his notionally equal say in commanding the troops with his brother Agamemnon, in practice Agamemnon often
dominates.
3.
Achilles This "swift-footed" warrior is the greatest on the Greek side. His father is Peleus, a great warrior in his own
right, and his mother is Thetis, a sea nymph. The consequences of Achilles' rage at Agamemnon for confiscating his
geras (prize of honor) are the subject of the Iliad. Achilles kills Hector, but is killed by a poisoned arrow in the heel,
the only vulnerable place on his body.
4.
Patroclus Achilles' foster brother and closest friend. Although Patroclus is a formidable hero, he is valued for his
kind and gentle nature. Patroclus is killed by Hector while wearing the armor of Achilles.
5.
Ajax This prince of Salamis is the son of Telamon. He once fights all afternoon in single combat with Hector; since
neither one can decisively wound the other, they part as friends. Ajax's most glorious achievement is fighting the
Trojans back from the ships almost singlehandedly. He commits suicide after the armor of Achilles is awarded to
Odysseus rather than to himself.
6.
Diomedes In his day of glory, Diomedes kills Pandarus and wounds Aeneas before taking on the gods. He stabs
Aphrodite in the wrist and, with Athena as his charioteer, wounds Ares in the stomach. Along with Odysseus, he also
conducts a successful night raid against King Rhesus.
7.
Odysseus This son of Laertes is known for his cleverness and glib tongue. His accomplishments include a successful
night raid against King Rhesus, winning the armor of Achilles, and engineering the famous Trojan Horse. His ten-year
trip home to Ithaca (where his wife, Penelope, awaits) is the subject of the Odyssey.
8.
Nestor, king of Pylos, is too old to participate in the fighting of the Trojan War, but serves as an advisor. He tells tales
of "the good old days" to the other heroes.
Trojans
1.
Hector The son of Priam and Hecuba, he is probably the noblest character on either side. A favorite of Apollo, this
captain of the Trojan forces exchanges gifts with Ajax after neither can conquer the other in single combat. He kills
Patroclus when that Greek goes into battle wearing the armor of his friend, Achilles. Killed by Achilles to avenge the
death of Patroclus, he is greatly mourned by all of Troy. Funeral games take place in his honor.
2.
Paris (sometimes called Alexander) Also the son of Priam and Hecuba, he is destined to be the ruin of his country. He
fulfills this destiny by accepting a bribe when asked to judge which of three goddesses is the fairest. When he awards
Aphrodite the golden apple, Aphrodite repays him by granting him the most beautiful woman in the world;
unfortunately, Helen is already married to Menelaus. Known less for hand-to-hand fighting than for mastery of his
bow, he kills Achilles with an arrow but dies by the poisoned arrows of Philoctetes.
3.
Priam The king of Troy and son of Laomedon, he has 50 sons and 12 daughters with his wife Hecuba (presumably
she does not bear them all), plus at least 42 more children with various concubines. Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles,
kills him in front of his wife and daughters during the siege of Troy.
4.
Hecuba (or Hecabe) The wife of Priam, she suffers the loss of most of her children but survives the fall of Troy. She
is later turned into a dog.
5.
Andromache The wife of Hector and mother of Astyanax, she futilely warns Hector about the war, then sees both
her husband and son killed by the Greeks. After the war she is made concubine to Neoptolemus and later marries the
Trojan prophet Helenus.
6.
Cassandra This daughter of Priam and Hecuba has an affair with the god Apollo, who grants her the gift of prophecy.
Unable to revoke the gift after they quarrel, Apollo curses her by preventing anyone from believing her predictions.
Among her warnings is that the Trojan horse contains Greeks. After Troy falls she is given to Agamemnon, who
tactlessly brings her home to his wife Clytemnestra. Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus then kill Agamemnon and
Cassandra, leaving Agamemnon's son Orestes (egged on by sister Electra) to avenge the deaths and kill Clytemnestra
and Aegisthus.
7.
Laocoon Yet another son of Priam and Hecuba, this priest of Apollo shares Cassandra's doubt about the merits of
bringing the Trojan horse into the city. "Timeo danaos et dona ferentes," he says (according to Vergil), "I fear the
Greeks, even bearing gifts." Later, while sacrificing a bull, two serpents from the sea crush both him and his two
young sons. The death of Laocoon is often blamed on Athena (into whose temple the serpent disappeared) but more
likely the act of Poseidon, a fierce Greek partisan.
8.
Aeneas This son of Aphrodite and Anchises often takes a beating but always gets up to rejoin the battle. Knocked
unconscious by a large rock thrown by Diomedes, he is evacuated by Aphrodite and Apollo. He succeeds the late
Hector as Trojan troop commander and survives the fall of Troy, ultimately settling in Italy. His son Iulus founds Alba
Longa, near the site of Rome. That bloodline is the basis of Julius Caesar's claim to have descended from Venus.
You Gotta Know These Hindu Deities and Heroes
1.
Vishnu One of the Trimurti (the holy trinity of Hindu gods), Vishnu is the Preserver, protecting the world. When
needed, Vishnu descends to Earth as an avatar, or incarnation. Nine have appeared so far: Matsya, Kurma (tortoise),
Varah (boar), Narasimha (man-lion), Vamana (dwarf), Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, and Buddha. A tenth, Kalki, will
appear with a flaming sword to save humans from the darkness. Some cult followers worship Vishnu as Narayana,
the primal being. Vishnu has dark blue skin, rides with the eagle Garuna, and sits on the snake Shesha. His symbols
are the conch, disc, club, and lotus; his chief wives are Lakshmi and Bhu (the Earth). Kama, the god of love, may be
his son.
2.
Shiva Also known as Lord Mahesh, Shiva is the Destroyer in the Trimurti. Developed from Rudra, the Vedic god of
death, Shiva is often shown sitting on a tiger skin and riding the bull Nandi. He is also associated with a lingam
(phallus). He has three eyes, of which the third (in the middle of his head) is all-knowing; when it opens, the world is
destroyed and regenerated. Lord of all underworld beings, he wears a necklace of skulls and another made of a
snake. He carries a trident as a weapon and has a blue throat, the result of drinking poison while the ocean churns.
Parvati, one of his several consorts, bears him two sons: Kartikeya (the god of war) and Ganesha.
3.
Brahma The third of the Trimurti, Brahma is the Creator. By dropping an egg into the cosmic waters, he hatches a
younger form of Brahma that creates other beings. Also the chief priest, he has four heads that each point in a
cardinal direction, representing the Four Vedas. Brahma has a fifth head until Shiva plucked it off; as punishment for
that act, Shiva is forced to wander as a beggar and carry Brahma's severed skull as a bowl. Brahma's wife is Savitri,
who curses him after he lets a cow-maiden stand in for her at an important ritual. Few people worship Brahma,
either because of the curse or because he lost a power struggle to Vishnu.
4.
Krishna This eighth avatar of Vishnu is born when Vishnu plucks two of his own hairs - one light, one dark - and
used the dark hair to impregnate Devaki. Her husband Vasudeva saves Krishna from evil King Kansa by carrying him
across the river Yamuna to safety in Gokula. Krishna can be depicted as a child, adolescent, or adult. As an infant, he
plays pranks such as stealing butter. As a youthful lover, he plays the flute and dances with the gopis (cow-maidens)
in the Vrindavana forest. As an adult, he is a dark-skinned warrior with a light, angelic face, charioteer to Arjuna (in
the Mahabharata). In the Bhagavad-Gita it is he who reveals the importance of dharma and bhakti. His consort is the
cowherd girl Radha.
5.
Ganesha This elephant-headed god of wisdom and learning is often shown riding a rat. Parvati "gives birth" to
Ganesha by creating him from the saffron paste she scrubbed off of herself after bathing. When Parvati instructs
Ganesha not to let anyone in as she took another bath, Ganesha prevents Shiva from entering, prompting Shiva to cut
off Ganesha's head. To calm Parvati, Shiva tells servants to take the head of the first baby found whose mother had
her back turned; the servants bring back the head of a baby elephant. Ganesha has two wives (Riddhi and Siddhi),
two sons, and a daughter. People pray to this remover of obstacles and bringer of good fortune before they
commence business.
6.
Rama The seventh avatar of Vishnu is hero of the Ramayana. Born as a prince to King Dasharatha and Queen
Kaushalya, Rama wins the hand of his wife Sita in a competition held by Sita's father, King Janaka; only he can string
Shiva's bow. When his aunt Kaikeyi schemes to deprive him of Dasharatha's throne by putting her son Bharata there,
Rama and Sita are banished to a forest for 14 years. During that time, the ten-headed demon Ravana kidnaps Sita but
Rama rescues her and killed Ravana. Bharata abdicates; Rama makes Sita walk through fire to prove that Ravana had
not corrupted her.
7.
Indra The god of rain, thunder, and war, Indra wields the thunderbolt (vajra) and rides Airavat, the four-tusked
white elephant. In early Vedic times he was king of the gods who ruled swarga; many Rig Veda hymns are devoted to
him. With the aid of both the Marut storm gods and his favorite drink, soma, Indra leads the Aryan conquest of India.
He also defeats the dragon Vritra, who had stolen the world's water.
8.
Lakshmi (or Sri) The last and greatest treasure born from the "churning of the ocean," Lakshmi is the goddess of
prosperity and patron to moneylenders. The epitome of feminine beauty, she sits or stands on a lotus flower and
appears in her own avatars alongside Vishnu: Sita to his Rama; Padma the lotus to Vamana the dwarf; Radha (or
Rukmini) to Krishna. A form of the mother goddess (Shakti, or Devi), she also represents virtue and honesty.
9.
"Shiva's consort" Several incarnations of the "mother goddess" take this moniker. Parvati, the most benevolent
form, is the reincarnation of Sati, who threw herself into the fire. Durga is a demon-slayer who rides a lion into battle
and carries a weapon in each of her many arms. Kali is a black-skinned goddess of destruction, who defeats the
demon leader Raktavija by drinking all of his blood. Although Kali's dance can destroy the world, Shiva throws
himself at her feet to calm her, turning her into Parvati.
10. Arjuna The chief hero of the Mahabharata, Arjuna is the son of Indra and one of five Pandava brothers, who fight a
bitter war against their one hundred cousins, Kauravas, culminating at the battle on "Kuru's Field." Before the battle,
Arjuna asks his charioteer (Krishman) why he must fight. Krishna responds that Arjuna must follow a devotion to
god (bhakti) and that even as he slays his brethren, it is for a just cause. Along with the rest of the Pandavas, Arjuna is
married to Draupadi.
11. Hanuman Son of the wind god Vaayu and Queen Anjana, Hanuman has a human body with a monkey's head. As a
boy he swallows the sun (mistaking it for a piece of fruit); the angry Indra whips him with a thunderbolt. In response
the wind god Vaayu refuses to breathe air into the world, prompting Indra to apologize and the other gods to bestow
immortality and shapeshifting ability on Hanuman. He figures prominently in the Ramayana, where he flies to Lanka
to tell Sita that Rama will rescue her from Ravana.
12. Agni Part of a trinity with Surya (the sun) and Vaayu (the wind), Agni can be brought to life by rubbing two sticks
together. Since Agni is responsible for sacrificial fires, he is the patron of priests. He has a red body, two heads, three
legs, four arms, and seven tongues; he often carries a flaming javelin. In the Mahabharata, Agni's grandfather is one
of seven great sages; with the help of Krishna, he devours the Khandav forest.
You Gotta Know These Old Testament Characters
1.
Abraham was the first of the patriarchs, whose lives are told in the book of Genesis. He proved his military prowess
during the War of the Kings, rescuing his captured nephew Lot. He also tried, unsuccessfully, to persuade God to
spare the evil cities of Sodom (where Lot lived) and Gomorrah. His wife Sarah gave birth to Isaac when she was
ninety years old; Sarah evicted Abraham's concubine, Hagar, and her son Ishmael (said to be ancestor of the Arabs).
Abraham also bought the Cave of Machpela (near Hebron) as a burial ground for him and his descendants (Adam and
Eve, Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebeccah, and Jacob and Leah are supposedly buried there).
2.
Isaac was, as a child, almost sacrificed by his father Abraham on Mt. Moriah, when God tried to test Abraham's faith.
He married Rebeccah, and she gave birth to the twins Jacob and Esau, of whom Esau (the older one) was entitled to a
birthright. However, Jacob tricked Isaac with Rebeccah's help. This incident caused Esau and Isaac to be mortal
enemies. Denied his birthright, Esau went to live in Mt. Seir and became the father of the Edomites.
3.
Jacob was Esau's twin brother, but had to flee Esau's rage after stealing Esau's blessing and birthright. Jacob loved
his uncle Laban's daughter Rachel, but Laban tricked him into marrying her sister Leah first. Leah bore him Reuben,
Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun; Leah's maidservant Zilpah, bore Jacob Gad and Asher; Rachel gave birth
to Joseph and Benjamin, and Rachel's maidservant Bilhah bore Dan and Naphtali. The Twelve Tribes of Israel
descend from Jacob's twelve sons, with the exception of Joseph; Ephraim and Menasseh, sons of Joseph, each head
"half-tribes." Jacob was later renamed "Israel," meaning "he who fights with God."
4.
Joshua was the charismatic attendant to Moses during the Exodus from Egypt. Joshua was one of the twelve spies
sent to scout Canaan. Ten of the other spies gave negative reports of the land and were killed in the plague as
punishment; Joshua and another spy, Caleb, gave positive reports and were rewarded. Appointed Moses' successor,
Joshua led the Israelites in conquering and dividing Canaan. One of his most famous victories was against the city of
Jericho, which he destroyed by circling the city seven times while blowing on rams' horns (shofarim).
5.
Deborah was one of the Judges, leaders who governed the Hebrews in Canaan during the period between Joshua's
death and the establishment of the monarchy in Israel; she used to judge while sitting under a palm tree. In battle,
she and Barak (son of Abinoam) led the Hebrews to a stunning victory against Jabin, the Canaanite king. She won
when the chariots of Sisera, Jabin's general, got stuck in the mud of the river Kishon, and he and his soldiers all fled
or were killed. The victory ended an era of persecution of the Hebrews by Jabin.
6.
Lot was the nephew of Abraham and later left him to settle around the evil cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. When God
prepared to destroy the two cities, two messengers were sent to Lot to evacuate him from the area; as Lot and his
family were fleeing, his wife accidentally glanced back, and she was transformed into a pillar of salt. Afterwards,
fearing that they were the only people left alive on Earth, his two daughters got him drunk and became pregnant
from him, beginning the future nations of Moab and the Ammonites.
7.
Noah, being a "righteous man and blameless in his generation," (Genesis 6:9) was chosen by God to continue the
human race, while the rest of mankind was destroyed by a flood because of their wickedness. Afterwards, he and his
family populated the Earth. His son Shem is considered the father of the Semitic people (e.g., Arabs and Hebrews),
Ham, the ancestor of the Africans, and Japheth, the ancestor of various other races, including Indo-Europeans.
8.
Cain, Abel, and Seth were the sons of Adam and Eve. (Adam begat other sons and daughters but the Bible mentions
none by name.) Cain killed Abel out of rage because God had preferred Abel's offering from his flock, rather than
Cain's. When asked about Abel's fate, Cain answered, "Am I my brother's keeper?" Cain was punished for the murder
by becoming a vagabond, and he was given a special mark on his forehead to protect him from anyone who might kill
him (God promised that anyone who killed Cain would suffer punishment for seven generations). Later, Eve gave
birth to Seth.
9.
Ruth was a Moabite woman who converted to Judaism. Her lineage includes David, King of Israel. She stayed with
her mother-in-law, Naomi, after Naomi's husband and two sons died of illness. Ruth later married Boaz, one of the
family's relatives, as the custom was that a family member must continue his relative's lineage if he dies by marrying
his widow. The Book of Ruth is read on the holiday of Shavuot.
10. Ezra was a Jewish scribe who led a group of Jews back to Israel from their exile in Babylonia. He was also
instrumental in working to rebuild the Temple (with permission from Cyrus) after the Babylonian king
Nebuchadnezzar had destroyed it. When Israel's neighbors tried to convince King Artaxerxes that the Jews shouldn't
be able to rebuild the Temple because of their reputation as a rebellious province, Ezra intervened and appealed
later to King Darius, who allowed them to resume construction. Additionally, Ezra helped to reestablish Jewish
religious practice in Israel after the exile.
11. Saul, David, and Solomon were the first three kings of Israel. The young David, popular after killing the giant
Goliath, succeeded Saul at the behest of the prophet Samuel and with the blessing of his close friend, Saul's own son
Jonathan. For this, Saul greatly resented David and made more than one attempt to kill him. David, like Saul, spent
much of his reign at war; because of the blood on his hands, God decreed that Solomon (not David) would build the
Temple. David captured the city of Jerusalem and made it his capital. He fell in love with his future wife Bathsheba
after he spotted her bathing; he had her husband killed so that he could marry her. He also exhausted himself
supressing a rebellion by his son Absalom, who was captured when his long hair caught on a tree branch.
Bathsheba's son Solomon, in addition to building the Temple, was credited with writing Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and
Song of Songs.
12. Daniel was a young Jew who, together with his three friends (Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah), was taken captive by
Nebuchadnezzar when he conquered the Kingdom of Judah. Daniel was given a Babylonian name, and he gained
favor with Nebuchadnezzar when he correctly interpreted one of his dreams. Nebuchadnezzar was later replaced by
King Belshazzar. During a royal feast, a mysterious hand inscribed strange words on the wall. Daniel was summoned
and interpreted the famous message, the writing on the wall (it read "Mene, Mene, Tekel, Ufarsin"), as predicting
Belshazzar's downfall. Later that night, the King was killed, and King Darius the Mede took over. Servants of Darius
convinced him to lock Daniel in the lion's den, where he magically survived with God's help.
You Gotta Know These Asian Rivers
Asia is home to seven of the world's twelve longest rivers, but its waterways are also of high cultural, spiritual, and economic
importance. Here are the ten Asian rivers that every quiz bowl team should be familiar with.
1.
The Yangtze (or Chang Jiang or Ch'ang Chiang) is the longest river in China and Asia and the third longest in the
world. It rises in the Kunlun Mountains, flows across the Tibetan Plateau, passes the cities of Chongqing, Wuhan,
Nanjing, and Shanghai, and empties into the South China Sea. Its basin is China's granary and is home to nearly one in
every three Chinese citizens. The river has been in the news for the construction of the Three Gorges Dam, the
world's largest, which will reduce flooding but displace 1.5 million people and bury more than 1,300 known
archaeological sites.
2.
The Brahmaputra (or Tsangpo or Jamuna) runs 1,800 miles from its source in the Tibetan Himalayas; it starts
eastward across the plateau, then turns south into the Indian state of Assam, and then enters Bangladesh where it
merges with the Ganges to form the world's largest delta. While serving as a historical route to Tibet, the river is also
prone to disastrous flooding.
3.
The Yellow River (or Huang He or Huang Ho) is, at 3,400 miles, China's second-longest; it is also the most important
to the northern half of the country. It rises in Qinghai province and flows into the Bohai Gulf of the Yellow Sea. The
river's name comes from the extraordinary amount of loess silt that it carries, an average of 57 pounds for every
cubic yard of water. Among its notable features is the Grand Canal, built during the Ming Dynasty, that links it to the
Yangtze.
4.
The Ganges (or Ganga) is the holiest river of Hinduism. It rises in the Himalayas and flows a comparatively short
1,560 miles to the world's largest delta on the Bay of Bengal. Among that delta's distributaries are the Hooghly (on
whose banks Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) may be found) and the Padma (which enters Bangladesh). Approximately
one in every twelve human beings lives in the Ganges Basin, a population density that is rapidly polluting the river; a
significant source of that pollution is cremated remains.
5.
The Mekong is the chief river of Southeast Asia. It originates in eastern Tibet, forms much of the Laos-Thailand
border, flows south through Cambodia, and enters the South China Sea in southern Vietnam just south of Ho Chi
Minh City. The capital cities of Vientiane and Phnom Penh are on the Mekong. The building of dams and clearing of
rapids are a source of diplomatic conflict between China, Laos, and Cambodia.
6.
The Tigris is the eastern of the two rivers that define the historic region of Mesopotamia (meaning, "The Land
Between Two Rivers") that was home to the ancient civilizations of Sumer and Akkad. It rises in Turkey, then flows
southeast by Mosul, Tikrit, and Baghdad before joining the Euphrates to make the Shatt-al-Arab, which subsequently
empties into the Persian Gulf.
7.
The Euphrates defines the western border of Mesopotamia; it also rises in the Zagros Mountains of Turkey and its
shores are home to Fallujah and Babylon. It is the longer of the two rivers with a course of 1,740 miles (compared to
the Tigris' 1,180). Both the Tigris and the Euphrates have changed courses several times leaving ruins in the desert
where cities have been abandoned.
8.
The Irrawaddy (or Ayeyarwaddy) is the chief river of Myanmar (also known as Burma). It flows 1,350 miles past
Yangon (formerly Rangoon) and Mandalay to the Gulf of Martaban, an arm of the Bay of Bengal. Its delta is one of the
world's most important rice-growing regions, and its name is thought to come from the Sanskrit word for "elephant."
9.
The Indus is the chief river of Pakistan as well as being the ultimate source of the name of India. It rises in Tibet and
flows 1,800 miles to a delta on the Arabian Sea southeast of Karachi. The five major tributaries of the Indus, the
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej Rivers, are the source of the name of the Punjab region, which is Persian for
"Land of the Five Rivers". The Indus is the cradle of the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world's earliest urban
areas, whose main cities were Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.
10. The Jordan River rises in Syria from springs near Mount Hermon. It flows south to Lake Merom, through the Sea of
Galilee, and into the Dead Sea, which lies 1,300 feet below sea level. The river forms the nation of Jordan's boundary
with the West Bank and northern Israel. In the New Testament, the river was the site of the baptism of John the
Baptist. In modern times, about 80% of its water is diverted for human use, a figure that has led to the shrinking of
the Dead Sea and serious contention among bordering nations.
You Gotta Know These U.S. Supreme Court Cases
Each case is followed by the name of the presiding chief justice, the vote, and the year it was decided.
1.
Plessy v. Ferguson (Melville Fuller, 7-1, 1896) Homer Plessy (an octoroon) bought a first-class ticket on the East
Louisiana Railway. He sat in the whites-only car in violation of an 1890 Louisiana law mandating separate
accommodations. He was convicted, but appealed to the Supreme Court against John Ferguson, a Louisiana judge.
The court upheld the law provided that "separate but equal" facilities were provided. John Marshall Harlan issued a
famous dissent claiming "Our constitution is color-blind." Plessy was overturned by Brown v. Board of Education of
Topeka, Kansas.
2.
Marbury v. Madison (John Marshall, 4-0, 1803) On his final day in office in 1801, John Adams signed commissions
for 42 federal judges (the so-called "midnight judges"). His successor, Thomas Jefferson, opted to not deliver most of
the commissions. One appointee, William Marbury, sued the new secretary of state, James Madison, to force the
delivery of his commission. The Judiciary Act of 1789 had granted the court original jurisdiction in such cases, but
the Constitution did not. The court ruled that the Judiciary Act conflicted with the Constitution and was therefore
void. Therefore Marbury's request was denied for lack of jurisdiction. This case established the principle of judicial
review, the power of the court to nullify unconstitutional laws.
3.
Roe v. Wade (Warren Burger, 7-2, 1973) Norma McCorvey (under the alias Jane Roe), a rape victim, sued Dallas
County attorney Henry Wade for the right to an abortion. When the case reached the Supreme Court, the plaintiff
depended on the growing recognition of a "right to privacy" which began with the 1965 case of Griswold v.
Connecticut. The court struck down state anti-abortion laws as "unconstitutionally vague," held that the word
"person" in the Constitution "does not include the unborn," and legalized abortion in the first trimester. McCorvey
later joined the pro-life movement and claimed that she was not actually raped and that she was pressured into filing
the case by her ambitious attorney Sarah Weddington.
4.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (Earl Warren, 9-0, 1954) The suit was filed on behalf of Linda
Brown, a third grader, who had to walk a mile to a blacks-only school when a whites-only school was much closer.
Future Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall argued the case for the plaintiff. The court overturned Plessy v.
Ferguson and ruled that "separate but equal" facilities were not constitutional. A second case in 1955 required that
desegregation proceed "with all deliberate speed" but Southern schools were notoriously slow in complying; it was
not until 1970 that a majority had complied with the ruling.
5.
McCulloch v. Maryland (John Marshall, 9-0, 1819) After the Second Bank of the United States began calling in loans
owned by the states, Maryland passed a law taxing out-of-state banks. The federal bank refused to pay, so the state
sued its Baltimore cashier, James McCulloch. The court ruled that the federal government had the right to establish
the bank even though it was not expressly enumerated in the Constitution and also noted that since "the power to
tax was the power to destroy," Maryland could not tax the bank without destroying federal sovereignty.
6.
Baker v. Carr (Earl Warren, 6-2, 1962) Charles W. Baker, a Tennessee citizen, sued the Tennessee secretary state,
Joe Carr, claiming that the state's electoral districts had been drawn to grossly favor one political party. The
defendant argued that reapportionment issues were political, not judicial, matters, but the court disagreed and
declared the issue justiciable before remanding the case to a lower court. Two years later, in Reynolds v. Sims, the
court mandated the principle of "one man, one vote."
7.
Gideon v. Wainwright (Earl Warren, 9-0, 1963) Clarence Earl Gideon was accused of breaking into a pool hall in
Florida. Because his crime was not capital, the court declined to provide him with an attorney. He was convicted,
sued Louie Wainwright, the director of the corrections office, and took his case to the Supreme Court. The court
overruled Betts v. Brady and held that the Sixth and Fourteenth Amendments required appointed counsel in all trials.
Gideon was retried and found innocent. The case is the subject of the book Gideon's Trumpet.
8.
Hammer v. Dagenhart (Edward Douglass White, 5-4, 1918) The Keating-Own Act prohibited the interstate sale of
goods produced by child labor leading Roland Dagenhart to sue U.S. attorney Hammer in Charlotte since his two sons
would be put out of work. The court ruled that the federal government did not have the right to regulate child labor;
Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote a notable dissent focusing on the lack of proper state regulation. The case was
overturned by the 1941 U.S. v. Darby Lumber Company case upholding the Fair Labor Standards Act.
9.
Fletcher v. Peck (John Marshall, 6-0, 1810) In 1795 the Georgia legislature corruptly sold land along the Yazoo River
(now in Mississippi) to private citizens in exchange for bribes. The legislators were mostly defeated in the next
elections and the incoming politicians voided the sales. In the meantime, John Peck sold some of the land in question
to Robert Fletcher, who then sued him, claiming that he did not have clear title. The Supreme Court held that the
state legislature did not have the power to repeal the sale. This was one of the earliest cases in which the Supreme
Court struck down a state law.
10. Ex Parte Merryman (Roger Taney, 1861) This was not actually a Supreme Court case, but a federal court case heard
by Chief Justice Roger Taney while "circuit-riding" when the court was not in session. Lieutenant John Merryman of
the Maryland cavalry took an active role in evicting Union soldiers from Maryland following the attack on Fort
Sumter. Abraham Lincoln declared a secret suspension of the writ of habeas corpus and had a number of opposition
leaders, including Merryman, arrested. Taney found the president had acted unconstitutionally (only Congress can
suspend the writ), but Lincoln simply ignored his ruling.
You Gotta Know These Treaties
These are the twelve treaties that have been mentioned most frequently in NAQT's questions since our very first tournament
set back in 1997. As with all of the You Gotta Know lists available on our website, they aren't necessarily the most important
treaties from a historical point of view, merely those that have proven most gettable as answers and most useful as clues.
1.
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) officially ended World War I and was signed at its namesake French palace after the
Paris Peace Conference. It is noted for the "Big Four" (Woodrow Wilson, David Lloyd-George, Georges Clemenceau,
and Vittorio Orlando) who headed the Allies' delegations, discussions of Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points
(particularly the League of Nations), and its controversial disarmament, war guilt, and reparations clauses. The
conference was also notable for up-and-coming world figures who attended (John Maynard Keynes, Ho Chi Minh, Jan
Smuts, etc.).
2.
The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) was a series of treaties signed in the Dutch city of Utrecht that (mostly) ended the War
of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). They were signed by France and Spain for one side and by Britain, Savoy,
and the United Provinces (The Netherlands) for the other. The treaty confirmed a Bourbon prince (Philip, Duke of
Anjou) on the Spanish throne (ending Habsburg control), but took steps to prevent the French and Spanish thrones
from being merged. Some Spanish possessions, including Sicily, the Spanish Netherlands, Naples, and Gibraltar, were
given to the victors.
3.
The Treaty of Ghent (1814) ended the War of 1812 between the U.S. and Britain. It was signed in the Belgian city of
Ghent but, due to the distances involved, could not prevent the Battle of New Orleans two weeks later. The treaty
made no boundary changes and had minimal effect; both sides were ready for peace and considered the war a futile
and fruitless endeavor.
4.
The Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) ended the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). It was signed in Portsmouth, New
Hampshire, after negotiations brokered by Theodore Roosevelt (for which he won the Nobel Peace Prize). Japan had
dominated the war and received an indemnity, the Liaodong Peninsula in Manchuria, and half of Sakhalin Island, but
the treaty was widely condemned in Japan because the public had expected more.
5.
The Adams-Onís Treaty (1819) settled a boundary dispute between the U.S. and Spain that arose following the
Louisiana Purchase. It was negotiated by then-Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and most notably sold Florida to
the U.S. in exchange for the payment of its citizens' claims against Spain. It also delineated the U.S.-Spain border to
the Pacific Ocean leading to its alternate name, the Transcontinental Treaty.
6.
The Camp David Accords (1978) were negotiated at the presidential retreat of Camp David by Egypt's Anwar Sadat
and Israel Menachem Begin; they were brokered by U.S. President Jimmy Carter. They led to a peace treaty the next
year that returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt, guaranteed Israeli access to the Red Sea and Suez Canal, and more-
or-less normalized diplomatic and economic relations between the two countries. This isolated Egypt from the other
Arab countries and led to Sadat's assassination in 1981.
7.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) ended the Mexican-American War (1846-1848) and was signed in its
namesake neighborhood of Mexico City. Its most significant result was the "Mexican Cession" transferring California,
Nevada, Utah, and parts of four other states to the U.S. It also made the Rio Grande the boundary between Texas and
Mexico.
8.
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918) was a "separate peace" signed by the Bolshevik government of the new USSR
and Germany. The USSR needed to make peace to focus on defeating the "Whites" (royalists) in the Russian Civil
War, and it gave up Ukraine, Belarus, and the three Baltic countries after Germany invaded, an outcome worse than a
German offer which chief Soviet negotiator Leon Trotsky had rejected. The treaty was negotiated in modern-day
Brest (in Belarus) and was nullified by the subsequent Treaty of Versailles following Germany's defeat.
9.
The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) ostensibly divided the New World (and, in later interpretations, the entire world)
between Spain and Portugal. It resulted from a bull by (Spanish-born) Pope Alexander VI granting lands to Spain and
established a line west of the Cape Verde islands between future Spanish possessions (west) and Portuguese
possessions (east). The line passed through Brazil, allowing the Portuguese to establish a colony there while Spain
received the rest of the Americas. Endless wrangling and repeated revisions ensued.
10. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) is the collective name for two treaties ending the Thirty Years' War that were
signed by the Holy Roman Empire, minor German states, Spain, France, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic. It
confirmed the principle of "cuius regio eius religio" (that a ruler's religion determined that of his country) introduced
by the Peace of Augsburg, but mandated relative tolerance of other (Christian) faiths. It adjusted the borders of
German states and strengthened their princes with respect to the Emperor and transferred most of Lorraine and
some of Alsace to France.
11. The Lateran Treaty (1929) created the independent country of the Vatican City, made Catholicism the state religion
of Italy (ended in 1984), and determined the proper remuneration for Church property taken by Italy. It was signed
by Benito Mussolini and a representative of Pope Pius XI in the namesake papal residence and ended the so-called
"Roman Question" that arose out of the unification of Italy and the dissolution of the Papal States.
12. The Treaty of Paris (1898) was, surprisingly, the only Treaty of Paris to make the list. It ended the SpanishAmerican War and transferred Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico to the U.S. while making Cuba (ostensibly)
independent. The treaty was the beginning of American imperialism and underwent a lengthy and contentious
ratification.
You Gotta Know These Deserts
NAQT has a quota for geography questions at all levels of play; these are the deserts that have been most frequently asked
about in our past packets.
1.
Antarctica (5.4 million sq. mi.) Because it is covered with (solid) water, it is somewhat surprising that Antarctica is
considered a desert, but it is classified as such due to its lack of precipitation. Players should be familiar with its
tallest mountain (Vinson Massif, in the Ellsworth Mountains), its active volcano Mount Erebus, the surrounding Ross
and Weddell Seas, and the Ross Ice Shelf. Norwegian Roald Amundsen was the first to reach the South Pole (1911),
while Englishman Robert Scott died trying to reach it. Ernest Shackleton had to abandon his ship, the Endurance,
during an attempt to cross Antarctica on foot.
2.
Sahara Desert (Northern Africa; 3.5 million sq. mi.) The Sahara is the world's second largest desert, but its largest
hot desert. Players should know the Atlas Mountains (which bound the western Sahara on the north) and the Sahel, a
savannah-like strip that bounds it on the south. It is dominated by rocky regions (hamada), sand seas (ergs), and salt
flats (shatt) and dry river valleys (wadi) that are subject to flash floods. Its most asked-about inhabitants are the
Berbers and Tuaregs.
3.
Atacama Desert (Chile; 70,000 sq. mi.) The Atacama's chief claim to fame is the rain shadow of the Andes which
makes it the driest (hot) desert in the world. The desert was the primary bone of contention in the War of the Pacific
(1879-1883, Chile defeats Peru and Bolivia) that sought to control its nitrate resources (which were necessary for
the production of explosives).
4.
Kalahari Desert (Botswana, Namibia, South Africa; 360,000 sq. mi.) The Kalahari is a large region, not all of which is
arid enough to qualify as a desert. It is known for its red sand, large game reserves (meerkats, gemsbok, springbok,
steenbok), and mineral deposits (notably uranium). Most famous are its San Bushmen and their click language.
5.
Mojave Desert (U.S.; 25,000 sq. mi.) The Mojave is bounded by the San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountain ranges
along the San Andreas and Garlock Faults. It lies between the Great Basin and the Sonoran Desert and it contains the
lowest and driest point of North America, Death Valley. It is most strongly associated with the Joshua tree (Yucca
brevifolia).
6.
Gobi Desert (China and Mongolia; 500,000 sq. mi.) The Gobi, Asia's second largest desert (after the Arabian Desert),
is bounded on the north by the Altai Mountains. It is known for its role in the Silk Road trading route and the Nemegt
Basin, where fossilized dinosaur eggs and human artifacts have been found.
7.
Rub' al-Khali (Arabian Peninsula; 250,000 sq. mi.) Its name means "Empty Quarter" in English and this desert can
be considered the most inhospitable place on earth. It is known for the world's largest oil field, the Ghawar, and for
once being part of the frankincense trade.
8.
Namib Desert (Namibia and Angola; 30,000 sq. mi.) The Namib, a coastal desert, is known for its bizarre
Welwitschia and medicinal Hoodia plants. It is thought to be the oldest desert in the world.
9.
Painted Desert (Northern Arizona) The Painted Desert, which is shared by Grand Canyon and Petrified Forest
National Parks, is known for its colorful, banded rock formations.
10. Negev Desert (Israel; 4,700 sq. mi.) The triangular Negev covers the southern half of Israel.
11. Taklamakan Desert (China; 105,000 sq. mi.) The Taklamakan is an extremely cold, sandy desert known for splitting
the Silk Road into branches running north and south of it. It is bounded by the Kunlun, Pamir, and Tian Shan
mountain ranges.
12. Great Sandy Desert (Western Australia; 140,000 sq. mi.) Part of the Western Desert, and the ninth largest in the
world.
Oddly, half of the world's ten largest deserts don't make this frequency-based list: the Arabian Desert (#3, which includes the
Rub' al-Khali), the Patagonian Desert (#5), the Great Victoria Desert (#6), the Great Basin (#7), and the Chihuahuan (#8).
You Gotta Know These African Bodies of Water
Rivers:
1.
Nile River Usually cited as the longest river in the world, the Nile flows about 4,132 miles in a generally south-tonorth direction from its headwaters in Burundi to Egypt's Mediterranean Sea coast, where it forms a prototypical
delta. Over 80% of the Nile's flow comes from the shorter Blue Nile headstream, which arises from Ethiopia's Lake
Tana and meets the longer White Nile, whose headwaters include Lake Victoria, at Khartoum. At the first of the Nile's
six cataracts is the Aswan High Dam, which forms Lake Nasser and greatly reduces the annual floods.
2.
Congo River Africa's second-longest river, it flows in a counterclockwise arc some 2,900 miles to the Atlantic Ocean.
The Upper Congo's principal sources are the Lualaba, which rises in the Democratic Republic of the Congo's Katanga
province, and Zambia's Chambeshi River. Boyoma Falls (formerly Stanley Falls), a section of seven cataracts near
Kisangani, marks the beginning of the Congo River proper. Forming the Malebo Pool near the world capitals of
Kinshasa and Brazzaville, the Lower Congo flows past Angola's Cabinda exclave as it enters the ocean. Joseph
Conrad's Heart of Darkness depicts the often cruel conditions the Congo basin endured as a Belgian colony.
3.
Zambezi River Weaving across southern Africa, the Zambezi rises in eastern Angola, passes through Zambia, flows
along the borders of Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe, crosses through Mozambique, and enters the Indian Ocean's
Mozambique Channel near Chinde. Namibia's Caprivi Strip was created to allow access the Zambezi. The Cabora
Bassa and Kariba Dams form large lakes of the same name. The most spectacular feature of the Zambezi is Victoria
Falls, or Mosi-oa-Tunya ("the smoke that thunders"), which is over a mile wide and is the largest waterfall by flow
rate in Africa. The fact that the Zambezi separates Zambia and Zimbabwe is a classic trivia question.
4.
Niger River Africa's third-longest, it flows in a great clockwise arc through Guinea, Mali, Niger, and Nigeria before
entering the Gulf of Guinea. The medieval Mali and Songhai Empires were centered on the Niger, whose course was
mapped by Scottish explorer Mungo Park in the 1790s. In Nigeria, it receives the Benue River, its main tributary. The
massive Niger Delta, known for its fisheries, wildlife, and petroleum, is an area of increasing social unrest.
5.
Limpopo River Rising as the Crocodile (or Krokodil) River in South Africa's Witwatersrand region, it forms the
Transvaal's border with Botswana and Zimbabwe, then crosses through Mozambique. Deforestation in Mozambique
contributed to massive flooding of the Limpopo in 2000. Perhaps the most famous description of the Limpopo comes
from Rudyard Kipling, who in "The Elephant's Child" referred to it as "the great grey-green, greasy Limpopo River, all
set about with fever-trees".
6.
Okavango River The Okavango flows for about 1,000 miles from central Angola, through Namibia's Caprivi Strip,
and into the Kalahari Desert of Botswana. There, rather than flowing into the sea, it terminates in a massive inland
swamp known as the Okavango Delta, an area that, especially during the wet season, teems with wildlife in an
otherwise inhospitable region.
Lakes:
1.
Lake Victoria The world's second-largest freshwater lake by area, Lake Victoria lies along the Equator and is shared
between Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. Located on a plateau between two rift valleys, its lone outlet is the Victoria
Nile, a precursor of the White Nile. Named by British explorer John Hanning Speke for Queen Victoria, the
introduction of the predatory Nile perch in the 1950s has caused environmental degradation, sending many native
cichlid species into extinction.
2.
Lake Tanganyika Africa's second-largest lake by area, it is also the second-deepest in the world, surpassed only by
Lake Baikal. Due its extreme depth (over 4,700 feet), Lake Tanganyika contains seven times as much water as Lake
Victoria. A source of the Lualaba River, it is shared by Tanzania, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, and
Zambia. On its Tanzanian shore is the town of Ujiji, at which Henry Morton Stanley "found" Dr. David Livingstone in
1871.
3.
Lake Malawi (or Lake Nyasa) Africa's third-largest lake by area and the southernmost of the Great Rift Valley lakes,
it is wedged between the nations of Malawi, Tanzania, and Mozambique. Fed by the Ruhuhu River, its lone outlet is
the Shire River, a tributary of the Zambezi. Lake Malawi contains hundreds of species of endemic fish, especially
cichlids.
4.
Lake Volta The largest manmade lake, by area, in the world, Lake Volta was created by the construction of Ghana's
Akosombo Dam across the Volta River in the 1960s. The lake covers the area where the Black Volta and White Volta
rivers formerly converged. The Akosombo Dam can provide over a gigawatt of power, enough to supply nearby
aluminum smelters utilizing the energy-intensive Hall-Héroult process and the needs of the rest of the country.
5.
Lake Chad Formerly Africa's fourth-largest lake, its surface area has been reduced by over 90% since the 1960s due
to droughts and diversion of water from such sources as the Chari River. The lake is at the intersection of Chad,
Cameroon, Niger, and Nigeria, but most of the remaining water is in Chad and Cameroon. Lake Chad is very shallow
and has no outlet, so seasonal rainfall causes large fluctuations in its area.
Other notable features include the Orange, Senegal, and Gambia Rivers, Lakes Albert and Rudolf, and the Suez Canal. Notable
bodies of water off the African coast include the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aqaba, the Bights of Biafra and Benin, the Strait of
Gibraltar, and the Gulf of Sidra.
You Gotta Know These World War II Battles
European Theater:
1.
Battle of Britain (July 1940-October 1940) The Battle of Britain saw the British Royal Air Force (RAF) defeat the
German air force, known as the Luftwaffe, effectively saving Britain from a proposed German amphibious invasion
codenamed Operation Sea Lion. The primary German fighter plane was the Messerschmitt Bf 109, which engaged in
numerous dogfights against British pilots flying Hurricane and Spitfire aircraft. Effective use of radar helped to repel
German forces, forcing the Luftwaffe into nighttime raids against civilian targets in a campaign known as "the Blitz".
2.
Battle of Stalingrad (August 1942-February 1943) With about two million casualties, the Battle of Stalingrad is
often cited as the bloodiest battle in history. The battle arose out of Germany's summer campaign to capture vital oil
supplies in the Caucasus Mountains, but Friedrich Paulus's 6th Army became bogged down in intense street fighting
in the city, allowing Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov to launch Operation Uranus, which encircled Paulus's men by
defeating the Italian, Hungarian, and Romanian forces guarding their flank. In the final days of the battle, Hitler
promoted Paulus to field marshal, a not-so-subtle suggestion that Paulus should either fight to the death or commit
suicide, as no German field marshal had ever been captured; Paulus surrendered anyway.
3.
Battle of El Alamein (October 1942-November 1942) The Second Battle of El Alamein marked the turning point in
the African campaign. Named for an Egyptian coastal town 65 miles west of Alexandria, it saw the British Eighth
Army under Bernard Montgomery defeat the German Afrika Korps under Erwin Rommel, preventing the Nazis from
capturing the Suez Canal and oil fields in the Middle East. Following the battle, Allied forces landed in Morocco and
Algeria as part of Operation Torch, and by May 1943 all Axis forces in North Africa had surrendered.
4.
Battle of Kursk (July 1943-August 1943) Fought in western Russia, the Battle of Kursk was the largest tank battle in
history, with about 6,000 tanks engaged. Thanks to a complex spy network, the Soviet leadership was well-informed
about German plans to launch Operation Citadel against the Kursk salient, and constructed massive defensive
fortifications. After the German advance was stopped, a successful Soviet counterattack was launched. The German
Army never again was able to mount a major attack on the Eastern Front.
5.
D-Day (June 6, 1944) Also known as Operation Overlord, this was the largest amphibious assault in history, as
Supreme Allied Commander Dwight Eisenhower's forces attacked the German Atlantic Wall defenses on the beaches
of Normandy, France. Due to his wife's birthday, German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was absent at the start the
invasion, which saw American forces land at Utah and Omaha Beaches, British forces land at Gold and Sword
Beaches, and Canadian forces land at Juno Beach. After the landings, Allied forces erected prefabricated artificial
Mulberry harbors to aid in transporting goods to France.
6.
Battle of the Bulge (December 1944-January 1945) The Battle of the Bulge resulted from Germany's last major
offensive operation on the Western Front. The German plan to sweep through the Ardennes Forest and capture the
port city of Antwerp, Belgium, benefited from Allied aircraft being grounded due to poor weather. During the battle,
English-speaking German troops under Otto Skorzeny attempted to disguise themselves as Allied troops and
infiltrate enemy lines. German forces also besieged the Belgian town of Bastogne and requested its surrender, to
which U.S. Army Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe replied "Nuts!"; the siege was eventually lifted by forces
commanded by George Patton.
Other notable battles in Europe included the Battle of France, the Siege of Leningrad, the Battle of Moscow, the Battle of
Anzio, the Battle of Monte Cassino, Operation Market Garden, and the Battle of Berlin.
Pacific Theater:
1.
Attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941) On what President Franklin Roosevelt declared would be "a date which
will live in infamy," Japanese carrier-based aircraft launched, without a formal declaration of war, a surprise attack
on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor on the Hawaiian island of Oahu. The attack sank four battleships, most
notably the USS Arizona, but all of the U.S. Navy's carriers were at sea and were unattacked. Shortly after the attack,
Japan began invasions of Guam, Wake Island, the Philippines, and the British colony of Singapore. On December 8,
with only Montana Representative Jeannette Rankin dissenting, the U.S. Congress declared war on Japan.
2.
Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942) Resulting from a Japanese plan to capture Port Moresby in New Guinea, the
Battle of the Coral Sea was fought entirely by carrier-based aircraft, making it the first major naval battle in history in
which the two opposing fleets never directly fired upon (or even sighted) each other. The U.S. Navy's carrier
Lexington was sunk, and the Yorktown heavily damaged, while the Japanese Navy lost the light carrier Shoho and saw
its large carriers Shokaku and Zuikaku damaged. Ultimately, the invasion of Port Moresby was cancelled and the
temporary loss of two Japanese carriers gave the U.S. an edge at the subsequent Battle of Midway.
3.
Battle of Midway (June 1942) Universally considered the turning point in the Pacific Theater, the Battle of Midway
saw the Japanese lose four aircraft carriers, a blow from which they never fully recovered. Japanese Admiral Isoroku
Yamamoto planned to lure the U.S. fleet into a trap, but the Americans had broken the Japanese code, allowing them
to pull off a stunning victory, with dive bombers from the Enterprise sinking the carriers Kaga, Akagi, and Hiryu,
while those from the hastily-repaired Yorktown sank the carrier Soryu.
4.
Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 1944) By some measures the largest naval battle in history, the Battle of Leyte Gulf
resulted from the Japanese Sho-Go plan to halt the American reconquest of the Philippines. The plan nearly worked
when American Admiral William "Bull" Halsey was baited into moving all of his battleships and large carriers away
from the landing site, but an American force of small escort carriers and destroyers held off a Japanese task force that
included four battleships. Another Japanese force tried to pass through the Surigao Strait, but, in the last ever combat
between opposing battleships, the American Seventh Fleet crossed their "T" and annihilated the force.
5.
Battle of Iwo Jima (February 1945-March 1945) The Allies sought to capture Iwo Jima, a small island midway
between the Mariana Islands and the Japanese home islands, to provide an airbase for the eventual invasion of Japan.
Under the leadership of General Tadamichi Kuribayashi, the island's defenders built a complex network of
underground tunnels and well camouflaged artillery pieces that enabled them to hold out for a month against vastly
superior forces. The battle is best known for Joe Rosenthal's photograph showing six American servicemen raising a
flag atop Mount Suribachi.
6.
Battle of Okinawa (April 1945-June 1945) The largest amphibious assault of the Pacific Theater, the Battle of
Okinawa featured massive casualties among both combatants and civilians. The Japanese launched over 1,500
kamikaze attacks against the U.S. fleet, and even sent the massive battleship Yamato on a one-way suicide mission; it
was sunk by aircraft before reaching Okinawa. On the American side, both war correspondent Ernie Pyle and
Lieutenant General Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr., the commander-in-chief of the ground forces, were killed. Somewhat
uniquely, the battle also saw large numbers of Japanese troops surrender, although many were native Okinawans
forced into fighting.
Other notable clashes and incidents in the Pacific included the Bataan Death March, the Battle of Guadalcanal during the
Solomon Islands campaign, the Battle of the Philippine Sea, and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.