Process
Introduction.
Types of Processes.
Process Strategy in the industry.
Factors affecting Process Design.
Tools
Process
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Introduction
Classification of Processes
Process strategies at the Industry
Factors that affect (or are affected by) the Process
Selection.
Tools







SPC, SMED…
Documents
Work Measurement and Standards
Job Place Design
Line Balancing
Measuring Process Performance
Queueing Theory
Introduction
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
The information generated during the product design phase specifies
how the product must be, but not how to organize the production
process to make it (equipment, labor skills required, etc.).
Process Design specifies how the activities that Operations must carry
out should be developed:

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
Guiding the election and selection of technologies.
Clarifying the quantity and type of resources to be acquired, when to be
acquire and their availability.
Process design and redesign is intimately related to Product Design:

Concurrent or Simultaneous Engineering.
Process Selection and System Design
Forecasting
Capacity
Planning
Product and
Service Design
Technological
Change
Facilities and
Equipment
Layout
Process
Selection
Work
Design
Process
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Introduction
Classification of Processes
Process strategies at the Industry
Factors that affect (or are affected by) the Process
Selection.
Tools







SPC, SMED…
Documents
Work Measurement and Standards
Job Place Design
Line Balancing
Measuring Process Performance
Queueing Theory
The process-focused Project Shop
Characteristics
1. “Unique” products with certain complexity (boats, aircrafts, trains, motorways…)
2. The production process is managed like a project
3. Makes a one-of-a-kind product (volume = 1)
4. Uses general purpose equipment
5. Has informal relationships with many vendors
6. Very little vertical integration
7. Flexible layout often with factors of production moving to job
The Job Shop
A process structure suited for low volume production of a great variety of non-standard
products (highly customized products).
Custom or workshop: Low specialized operations carried out by the same worker or group
of workers that follow up the whole process for the order.
Batch: More specialized operations carried out by different workers or group of
workers (need for more specialization and standardization).
Characteristics
1. Makes many products in small volume
2. Uses general purpose equipment, grouped by the same function in Work Centres
3. Has informal relationships with vendors
4. Very little vertical integration
5. Departmentalized layout with chaotic flow
The Large Batch (Cell, Flow Shop or
Hybrid Shop)
A process structure that produces a variety of standard
products at relatively low volumes. This variety of
standard products has a similar sequence of operations:
The equipment is laid out in line, instead of grouped by
the same function.
After completing one batch, equipment adjustments for
the next one are made and the next batch produced.
Characteristics
1.Makes several families of products in moderate volume
2.Uses general purpose equipment often customized
3.Little vertical integration
4.Similar product follows the same path, produced in
batches to reduce the impact of setup time.
5.Hybrid layout with flow lines
Assembly Line
A process structure designed to make discrete parts. Parts are moved
through a set of specially designed workstations at a controlled rate.
Characteristics
1.Makes few products in large volume
2.Uses specialized high-volume equipment
3.Has formal relationships with vendors
4.May use vertical integration
5.Product-based layout with linear flow
Continuous Flow
An often automated structure that converts raw
materials into finished products in one continuous
process.
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Same operations are made in the same equipment to make
the same product, reducing waiting time.
Objectives:


Improvement of material flow and operations.
Workers specialization:

Increasing speed and added value.
Types of Processes

Flexibility and Costs
By Projects
 Job Shop
 Flow Shop
 Assembly Line
 Continuous

+
-
Flexibility
Variable Cost
Unit Cost
Fixed Cost
-
+
Process
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Introduction
Classification of Processes
Process strategies at the Industry
Factors that affect (or are affected by) the Process
Selection.
Tools







SPC, SMED…
Documents
Work Measurement and Standards
Job Place Design
Line Balancing
Measuring Process Performance
Queueing Theory
Process Strategy in the industry

Manufacturing Process Life Cycle
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
Processes go through different phases as
products do.
Interdependency between Product and
Process Life Cycles:

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Process Life Cycle: Affects manufacturing costs,
quality and production volumes, which affects
sales volumes.
Product Life Cycle: Influences the type of
manufacturing process that can be economically
and financially justified.
Process Strategy in the industry

Product-Process Matrix
Low
Volume,
One of a
Kind
I.
Job
Shop
II.
Batch
III.
Assembly
Line
IV.
Continuous
Flow
Multiple
Products,
Low
Volume
High
Few
Major Volume,
Products, High
Higher StandardVolume ization
Commercial
Printer
French Restaurant
These are
the major
stages of
product and
process life
cycles
Flexibility (High)
Unit Cost (High)
Heavy
Equipment
Automobile
Assembly
Burger King
Sugar
Refinery
Flexibility (Low)
Unit Cost (Low)
Process Strategy in the industry

The Product-Process matrix and the Competitive Advantage
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The Product-Process matrix helps companies define where their
competencies are, concentrating their attention in a limited group
of decisions and process alternatives, as well as a limited group
of Marketing options.
When the company considers at the same time products and
processes, it can increase its probability of success.
Place in the matrix and Competitive priorities
Organization of the Operations and the Product-Process
matrix
Process Strategy in the industry
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The Product-Process matrix and the Competitive Advantage
Place in the matrix and Competitive priorities

Operations Management priorities change as the ProductProcess combinations change.


Each company has to take into account its traditional focus when
positioning in the matrix:
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I.e.- Flexibility vs. Standardization
Market oriented: Flexibility and Quality.
Manufacturing oriented: Costs and Process Leadership.
Organization of the Operations and the Product-Process
matrix
Process Strategy in the industry
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The Product-Process matrix and the Competitive Advantage
Place in the matrix and Competitive priorities
Organization of the Operations and the Product-Process matrix
 Paying attention to the process that makes the company more
competitive, the company will be able to manage the
development of the operations involved per line of products.
 The knowledge about how the different positions in the matrix
affect manufacturing will lead the company to suggest changes in
Operations Management.
 Companies that compete with several products in different
markets will probably have their products in different stages of the
life cycle:

Companies should separate and organize their processes in different
areas focalized in the different life cycles.
Process

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


Introduction
Classification of Processes
Process strategies at the Industry
Factors that affect (or are affected by) the Process
Selection.
Tools







SPC, SMED…
Documents
Work Measurement and Standards
Job Place Design
Line Balancing
Measuring Process Performance
Queueing Theory
Process Selection and System Design
Forecasting
Capacity
Planning
Product and
Service Design
Technological
Change
Facilities and
Equipment
Layout
Process
Selection
Work
Design
Factors affecting Process Design
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Capital Investment
Flexibility
Vertical Integration / Outsourcing
Nature of Demand
Quality of the product or service
Customer participation
The Learning effect
Financial Planning and Evaluation
Factors affecting Process Design
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Capital Investment

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Combination of equipment and human resources
at the manufacturing process.
The new manufacturing technologies provide a
wide variety of available options:
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
As the mechanical and/or automated operations
increase, more capital is required.
Most of the available options require a high capital
investment, which create a high risk in case our sales
volumes (and therefore our production volumes) are
lower than the expected.
Factors affecting Process Design

Flexibility


A production process is more flexible when their
equipment and human resources are able to
manage a wider variety of products, outputs,
responsibilities and functions, at a reasonable
cost and time frame.
Capital vs. Flexibility
Flexibility
New
Traditional
technologies technologies
Capital
Factors affecting Process Design

Flexibility

Flexibility affects the type of human resources
required and their job stability:
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
More training is required.
Job stability is more variable for companies working by
projects or job shop type of process.
Flexibility is one of the best ways to get a reliable
customer service and reduces bottle necks.
Factors affecting Process Design

Vertical Integration/Outsourcing
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The degree of vertical integration is related to the number
of processes at the supply chain that are carried out by the
own company.
The vertical integration can generate savings when the
company has the necessary skills to carry out some
processes at a lower cost and better quality.
If the resources acquired are basic, the company may
loose competitiveness with non-vertical integration.
Outsourcing is interesting when a resource consumption is
low, and its efficient management has a certain economy of
scale.
Outsourcing is used as well when the technology to be
used is so complex that being competitive requires a big
effort not balanced with the benefits obtained.
Factors affecting Process Design

Nature of the demand


Manufacturing processes have to have the necessary capacity to
support the demand of products and services that the company is
going to offer.
Seasonality, tendency and other characteristics of the demand are
going to affect the capacity required over the time.
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Some processes are able to expand and contract more easily than others.
The final selection of processes will be affected by the estimated demand.
Price:
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
If it’s high, consumers will tend to buy less and vice versa.
To fix the price, the company has to take into account factors like
advertising costs, sales force, financial conditions, services provided to the
customer, specific designs, inventory and delivery policy, quality, etc., at the
same time than the costs related to manufacturing.
It should be coordination between product price and process selection, due
to the competitive advantages provided by the different types of processes
Factors affecting Process Design

Quality of the product or service

Quality is a competitive advantage in the current business
environment.
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The level of quality to be offered will affect directly the selection of the
production process.
The level required is directly related to the level of automation of the
process, since the automatic equipment manufactures products with
a high and consistent uniformity.
Customer participation


Services that require higher contact with the customer generally
need less capital investment and have more flexibility.
Customer presence normally affects the process efficiency in a
negative way, which increases cost.
Factors affecting Process Design
The Learning effect

The working hours required per unit of product represent a
decreasing function of the number of cumulative production units.
Working
hours per unit

Production volume


This reduction of working hours (and therefore cost) are
based on the gain of experience in design of products and
services, automation and capital investment, as well as
changes in methods and experience of the working force.
Companies competing in price try to have high
manufacturing volumes to take advantage of the learning
effect, and therefore have a lower cost.
Factors affecting Process Design
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Financial Planning and Evaluation

Operation managers are continuously looking for
new and different ways of producing that:
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Increase productivity.
Follow the Operations Strategy.
Provide sufficient profit to justify the capital investment
required.
Each type of process has different capital
requirements, thus limiting the company’s
possibilities of process selection in case of limited
financial resources.
Process
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Introduction
Classification of Processes
Process strategies at the Industry
Factors that affect (or are affected by) the Process
Selection.
Tools







SPC, SMED…
Documents
Work Measurement and Standards
Job Place Design
Line Balancing
Measuring Process Performance
Queueing Theory
Tools and Concepts
Simplify/Mechanize/Automate/Integrate
 SMED
 CAD/CAM
 Statistical Process Control
 Bottlenecks

How much is the profit?
A
company manufactures 2 products P & Q. Sale price of P is
90 € and Q price is 100 €/unit. Weekly Demand is 100 units for P
and 50 units for Q.
Both products require the same PC component, the raw
material of which worths 20 €/unit. To transform PC 15 minutes
of a given resource B are required and 5 minutes of a given
resource C.
Product P also requires Component 1 (C1) that should be
transformed from a raw material that cost 20 €/unit, and it
requires 15 minutes of a given resource A and 10 minutes of C.
To assembly PC with C1 a new component C3 is required with
a cost of 5 €/unit and 5 minutes of the D resource.
Product Q follows a very similar process. To manufacture C2
raw material with a cost of 20 €/unit is needed, and it is
processed using 20 minutes of A and 15 minutes of B. Then
resource D assembles PC with C2 during 5 minutes.
Each week has 5 days of 4 hours. Total cost are 3600 €/week.
Process
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



Introduction
Classification of Processes
Process strategies at the Industry
Factors that affect (or are affected by) the Process
Selection.
Tools







SPC, SMED…
Documents
Work Measurement and Standards
Job Place Design
Line Balancing
Measuring Process Performance
Queueing Theory
Work Measurement and Standards
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
The Purpose of Work Measurement is to set time standards for a job.
Such standards are necessary for 4 reasons:
 To schedule work and allocate capacity.
 To provide an objective basis for motivating the workforce.
 To bid for new contracts and to evaluate performance on existing ones.
 To provide benchmarks for improvement.
Methods
 Time Study (stop watch)
 Work Sampling (observing a sample)
 Predetermined times
 Elementary standard data
 Reference points.
Reference Book (B.W. Niebel, Motion and Time Study)
Time Study
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
A time study is generally made with a stopwatch, either on the spot
or by analyzing a videotape for the job.
The job or task to be studied is separated into measurable parts
and then timed individually.
Some general rules
 Define each work element to be short in duration but long enough
to be timed and the time can be written
 Separate activities related with machine from the rest.
 Define any delays or acyclic activities.
 After a number of repetitions, collection times are averaged.
Normal Time = Observed Performance Time x Performance Rating
Standard Time = NT x (1 + Allowances)
Work Sampling


Three primary applications
 Determine the activity-time percentage for personnel or
equipment.
 Performance measurement to develop a performance index for
workers.
 Evaluate time standards to obtain the standard time for a task.
Five Steps
 Identify the specific activities that are the main purpose for the
study.
 Estimate the proportion of time of activity of interest of the total
time.
 State the desired accuracy in the study results.
 Determine the specific times when each observation is to be
made.
 At two or three intervals during the study period recompute the
required sample size by using the data collected thus far.
Predetermined Motion Times (MTM, MODAPTS, )
Put
Get
N
X
F
GE
8
13
16
GD
17
20
25
N
X
F
PE
5
9
14
PD
19
22
28
Move with Weight (5 UMT)
Grasp (6 UMT)
Apply Presure (14 UMT)
Eye Movement (7 UMT)
Step (18 UMT)
Bend Down (29 UMT)
Stand up (32 UMT)
Coger funda GDF 25
Coger "tinta" GDF 25
Poner "tinta en funda" PDN 19
Coger y Poner GEN+PEN 5+8
Aplicar Presión 14
Coger caperuzón GDF 25
Reajustar tras coger 6
Poner caperuzón PDN 19
Aplicar Presión 14
Dejar bolígrafo PEF 14
6.3 seconds
Process
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



Introduction
Classification of Processes
Process strategies at the Industry
Factors that affect (or are affected by) the Process
Selection.
Tools







SPC, SMED…
Documents
Work Measurement and Standards
Job Place Design
Line Balancing
Measuring Process Performance
Queueing Theory

Documents
Flowchart.A flowchart is a
graphical representation of a
process, depicting inputs,
outputs and units of activity. It
represents the entire process at
a high or detailed (depending on
your use) level of observation,
allowing analysis and
optimization of workflow.It can
serve as an instruction manual.

Assembly Drawing: An
exploded drawing containing a
set of number parts combined to
make a complet product.

Value Stream Map: Value
stream mapping is a paper and
pencil tool that helps you to see
and understand the flow of
material and information as a
product or service makes its
way through the value stream.
Process Documentation using Flowcharts
Example:
Basic flowchart symbols
Any problems
with the following
set of directions?
Shampoo directions
1. Lather
2. Rinse
3. Repeat
Begin or end
Information
input
Begin shampoo
Operation
Information
output
Wet hair with
warm water
Lather shampoo
into hair
Select bottle
Rinse hair with
warm water
No
Information
on bottle
Shampoo?
Yes
Question
yes/no?
No
Hair
clean?
Yes
End shampoo
Process Flow Diagram (PFD)
A process flow diagram is a mapping of the specific processes that raw materials,
parts, and subassemblies follow as they move through a plant.
Builds on the concept of flowcharting
Activity
.
A more constrained version of the operation symbol used in flowcharting
1.
Requires a resource
2.
Resource has a capacity constrain
3.
Adds value
Flow
1.
Arrow indicates the flow of jobs
2.
Multiple flow units (types of jobs) possible
Buffer
Trees
RM
Debark
Buffer or inventory location
1.
Normally does not have a capacity
2.
Multiple units possible
Stems
WIP
Scan
Acceptable
Saw
Grind
Acceptable
Lumber
FG
Chips
FG
Flow Diagrams
Single Object Process Chart
Assembly Process Chart

Assembly charts

Disassembly charts
Action Decision Flow Diagram
Multi Activity Charts
Process
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Introduction
Classification of Processes
Process strategies at the Industry
Factors that affect (or are affected by) the Process
Selection.
Tools







SPC, SMED…
Documents
Work Measurement and Standards
Job Place Design
Line Balancing
Measuring Process Performance
Queueing Theory
Job Design (I)



Job design is the function of specifying the work activities of an
indidividual or a group in an organizational setting.
The objective is to develop job structures that meet the
requirements of the organization and its technology and that
satisfy the job holder’s personal and individual requirements.
Trends of Job Design Decisions
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Quality control as part of the workers job
Cross training workers to perform multiskilled jobs
Employee involvement and team approaches to designing and
organizing work
“Informating” ordinary workers through internet, email…
Extensive use of temporary workers
Automation of heavy manual work
Organizational commitment to providing meaningful and rewarding
jobs for all employees.
Job Design (II)

The improvement of the job methods leads to a higher level of
specialization.
 A workplace with a high level of specialization covers a narrow set of
tasks, high repetitive levels, and, hopefully, high efficiency and quality.
 Specialization produce benefits as quicker training and faster working
rates.
 This way of working has also some disadvantages as worker
demoralization, reduces flexibility and increases the work of upper levels
of management.

To avoid those disadvantages:

Wider jobs



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Job enlargement (horizontally expanded)
Job enrichment (vertically expanded)
Job Rotation
Socio-Technical Systems

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Task variety
Skill variety
Feedback
Task identity
Task autonomy
Process





Introduction
Classification of Processes
Process strategies at the Industry
Factors that affect (or are affected by) the Process
Selection.
Tools







SPC, SMED…
Documents
Work Measurement and Standards
Job Place Design
Line Balancing
Measuring Process Performance
Queueing Theory
Line Balancing
Introduction
 Line Balancing




Mathematical Programming Model
Heuristic Methods
Yamazumi
Duration of the Tasks Longer than Cycle Time
 Other Considerations.
 Mixed Model Assembly Line

Introduction

The design of the line, constraints the alternatives when
scheduling the activity of the line.

A decision on the productive system (in the long term):

Defines the allocation of facilities.

Constrains the sequence (lines with mixed models).

Constrains the production volumes (lines multi-model).
Assembly line
Manufacturing
Made and bought inventory of
components and subassemblies
Conveyor moving at
Work
Station 1
Work
Station 2
constant speed
Work
Station m
Final
product
inventory
Production Organization
In
1
2
3
4
N
Out
single model line
In
1
2
3
4
N
Out
batch model line
In
1
2
3
4
N
Out
mixed model line
Use of the Assembly line


Advantages
 Performance increase due to the learning effect.
 Reduces the difficulty of the task.
 Increases the team work, avoiding isolations.
 Constant rate of work.
 Ongoing quality control.
Disadvantages
 Alienation.
 Less flexibility.
Line Balancing. Definition.



Line Balancing consists of assigning operations to the
workstations of such form that the sum of their durations in
each station is as similar as possible.
With this procedure bottlenecks should be avoided,
unproductive time will be reduced and the productivity of
the line will increase.
This implies that:
 Each operation will be assigned to an one only and only
one workstation.
 Relations and bounds between operations will be
respected.
 Times of the stations will not exceed their cycle time.
Objectives.

Capacity




Cost




Minimization of total idle time (maximization of the use of the
line).
Minimization of product flow-time.
Balance the levels of capacity used at the workstations.
Minimization of the machinery costs, tools or idle equipment.
Minimization of the costs of materials or reworks.
Minimization of the costs by adjustment and change.
Organizational-social


Job Enrichment
Modifications at the Line balancing
General definitions.(I)





Operation: Smaller unit of work than cannot be divided without creating an
unnecessary interference.
Workstation: Segment of the line where a set of operations is executed.
Characterized by its surface, machinery or type of assigned work.
Line Balancing: Process to assign operations to workstations. It intends to
assign personal or equipment of efficient way to obtain the performance
maximum.
Cycle time: Amount of time between two consecutive products.
Avalaible Time
Cycle Time 
Forecast Production
Balance Efficiency: It indeed represents the percentage of invested total
time in making products.
Operations Total Time
Efficiency 

Cycle Timex Stations Nº
Station Pitch: The distance of a product and the one that follows to him in
the conveyor belt.
General Definitions. (II)

Bounds between operations.
 Precedence Relations.
Imposed generally by technological constraints.
 “Operation 'í' cannot be made if before the 'h' has not
taken place”
 In the case of linear configurations, this implicates
that 'h' will have to be in the same station that 'i' or in
a previous one, but never in a following one.

General Definitions. (III)

Positive Zoning.
 It is compulsory to locate an operation in
the same station that another one.
Operations that need the same tool
Operations that need the same ability on the part of the
worker
Operations that need the same physical training conditions

Negative Zoning or incompatibility.
 It is demanded that an operation is not in
the same station that another one.
Position of the unit in the line (Operations to be made at the
right side
are not compatible with those to be made at the left)
Exigency of a high specialized workers
Processes of painted sandpapering and of surfaces
Allocation of varied activities to avoid monotony.

Limit Zone.
 It is demanded that certain operations are
assigned to stations previous or next to
one given
Fixed zone of material arrival.
Zone of preparation or control.
General Definitions. (IV)

Line Speed

Productivity

V=L/C
P
L
1
C
1 minute
Operation Time in a station
TO
TO j   ti ; j = 1,..., m
TO
C
C
i j

n
Minimum number of workstations
N ws 
t
i 1
C
i
1 minute
General Definitions. (IV)




Total idle time of a station or delay
n
j 1
i 1
D   (C  TO j )  m  C   ti
n
Efficiency
Delay
m
TOi
Sj 
; j = 1,..., m
C
Station saturation
E (%) 

DI j  C  TOi ; j = 1,..., m
Idle time of a station
t
i 1
i
mC
100
0.9 minutes
R(%)  100  E (%)
...
1 minute
1 minute
Line Balancing
Introduction
 Line Balancing



Mathematical Programming Model
Heuristic Methods
Duration of the Tasks Longer than Cycle Time
 Other Considerations.
 Mixed Model Assembly Line

Resolution Procedures for problem SALBP 1.

Exact methods
Mathematical Programming Models
 Exact algorithms of directed exploration and dynamic
programming.


Heuristic methods

Constructive. Based on rules and strategies




Heuristic of a single one happened.
Simple
Composed
Heuristic with backward movement
Approaches from exact algorithms
 Others

Model of PLM of problem SALBP1.
mmax
MIN z   y j
j 1
sujeto a:
mmax
x
j 1
n
t
i 1
i
i, j
1
 xi, j  C  y j
mmax
 jx
j 1
i=1…n
i, j

j=1…mmax
[2]
i precede a p
[3]
j=1…mmax-1
[4]
mmax
 jx
j 1
y j 1  y i
x i , j  0,1i, j
y j  0,1j
[1]
p, j
Variables of allocation xij:
Binary variables that they
indicate if operation i is
assigned to station j.
Variables of existence yj:
Binary variables that they
indicate if station j exists.
This existence comes
imposed when not being
able to assign but
operations to anyone of
the stations already
defined.
Heuristic procedures


Although nonexact, some heuristic
procedures provide solutions that
can be considered acceptable.
The known procedures of
constructive type more are the
bound ones to the duration of the
task or the number of consequent.


One of them chooses to assign to
the open station the task with
greater duration than still it fits in the
station.
The alternative procedure chooses
to assign to the open station the
task with greater number of
consequent.
Yamazumi
5
6
9
4
10
2
1
3
8
12
11
7
C
Y
C
L
E
T
I
M
e
Objectives.

Capacity




Cost




Minimization of total the idle time (maximization of the use of
the line).
Minimization of products flow-time in the line.
Balance the levels of capacity use at the workstations.
Minimization of the machinery costs, tools or idle equipment.
Minimization of the costs of materials or reworks.
Minimization of the costs by adjustment and change.
Organizational-social


Job Enrichment
Modifications in the Line balancing
Line Balancing
Introduction
 Line Balancing




Mathematical Programming Model
Heuristic Methods
Yamazumi
Duration of the Tasks Longer than Cycle Time
 Other Considerations.
 Mixed Model Assembly Line

A real Example
Operation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Time
0,175
0,139
0,078
0,349
0,007
0,050
0,211
0,158
0,230
0,080
0,075
0,395
0,219
0,188
0,122
Preceding Task
1
4
8
9
9
12
12
Operation
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Time
0,200
0,084
0,116
0,199
0,079
0,103
0,098
0,116
0,210
0,140
0,210
0,177
0,234
0,090
Preceding Tas
13;15
18
19
19
9
19
23
24
25
26
27
-
Yamazumi Graphics Example
5
6
11 29
16
14
2
9
23
12
1
20
28
24
26
19
13
8
27 21
25
18
4
7
22
17
15
3
10
Yamazumi Graphics Example
3
11
5
14
2
16
9
22
18
4
1
29
28
19 24 26
13
8
27 21 17
25
20
12
7
23
6
15
10
Process





Introduction
Classification of Processes
Process strategies at the Industry
Factors that affect (or are affected by) the Process
Selection.
Tools







SPC, SMED…
Documents
Work Measurement and Standards
Job Place Design
Line Balancing
Measuring Process Performance
Queueing Theory
Measuring Process Performance











Productivity: Ratio of Output to Input
Effiency: Ratio of Actual output to some standard.
Utilization: Ratio of the time that a resource is actually activated
relative to the time that it is available for use.
Cycle time (takt time): Average time between the completion of
succesive units.
Run Time: time required to produce a batch of parts
Setup Time: is the time required to prepare a machine to make a
particular item.
Operation Time: sum of setup and run time.
Throughput time: time that unit spents actually being transformed
or waiting.
Throughput rate: output rate that the process is expected to
produce over a period of time.
Process velocity: Total throughput divided by Value Added Time
Value Added Time: Time that useful work is actually done
Process





Introduction
Classification of Processes
Process strategies at the Industry
Factors that affect (or are affected by) the Process
Selection.
Tools







SPC, SMED…
Documents
Work Measurement and Standards
Job Place Design
Line Balancing
Measuring Process Performance
Queueing Theory
Queueing Theory

Little’s Law: The size of a queue is proportional to the input
rate and the average throughput time.
L=  W
Lq =  Wq
W  Wq 
1
