The Economics of Gender
Gender vs Sex
• Sex: perbedaan secara biologis
– Laki-laki vs perempuan
• Gender: Characteristics as attributed that are
socially associated with being female and
male
– Feminine
– Masculine
What is economics of gender ?
• Interaksi agen ekonomi dalam keluarga,
perusahaan dan pasar, sebagai laki-laki dan
perempuan berbeda.
• Hal ini dipelajari dalam economics of gender
Seringkali Keliru
Contoh:
• – Angka Partisipasi Angkatan Kerja Menurut
Gender seharusnya menurut sex (jenis
kelamin)
• – Upah Pekerja Industri Manufaktur Menurut
Gender ? Padahal kita hanya menyajikan
statistik laki‐laki dan perempuan.
Kajian Gender yang Benar
• Kajian mengapa Angka Partisipasi Angkatan
Kerja Perempuan selalu lebih rendah dari
laki‐laki?
• Jawab: karena budaya patriarki bahwa laki‐laki
bekerja di luar rumah, perempuan di dapur
dan mengurus anak
What is Gender Economics ?
• Menerangkan bagaimana perbedaan gender
(gender differences) sbg pelaku ekonomi
menghasilkan perbedaan keluaran ekonomi
(economic outcomes) terhadap masing‐masing
jenis kelamin
• Ukurannya ?
Ukuran yang Digunakan
Ukurannya:
– Pendapatan, penghasilan, tingkat kemiskinan,
jumlah jam kerja dsb.
– Dan ukuran lain yang dipakai para ekonom
untuk menentukan kesejahteraan ekonomi
laki‐laki dan perempuan (alokasi waktu lk vs
pr).
Is Economcs Gender Blind ?
• Is macroeconomic policy gender blind?
• They persue aggregate goals, blind to
differential impacts on all individuals
– Gender
– Sector
– Location
Isu Gender dalam Economi
1. Pelaku ekonomi di masyarakat dapat laki‐laki
atau perempuan
2. Mereka berinteraksi dalam keluarga,
perusahaan maupun pasar.
3. Dua hal ini harus dipelajari dalam ekonomi
gender untuk dapat dikatakan valid
Gender Blind
• The omission of gender concerns:
– Generates policy with inefficienct macro level
outcomes
– Give unpredicted micro level consequences for
women, children and families.
• So what ?
Isu Gender
• Kesetaraan Gender yaitu kesetaraan dalam
akses, partisispasi, kontrol dan manfaat.
• Sehingga: terjadi kesetaraan hak di dalam
segala sendi kehidupan
• Di masyarakat kita selalu bertanya mengapa
laki‐laki dan perempuan selalu berbeda dalam
kegiatan ekonomi? Pdhl lk maupun pr adalah
pelaku ekonomi
• Mengapa pendapatan perempuan selalu lebih
rendah dari laki‐laki?
• Mengapa banyak terjadi sex segregation
dalam pekerjaan,dan apa akibatnya terhadap
perbedaan pendapatan?
• Apakah peningkatan jumlah perempuan
dalam pasar kerja menyebabkan peningkatan
tabungan rumah tangga, meningkatkan
household autonomy, atau perceraian atau
jumlah anak sedikit?
Perspektif Ekonomi Gender
• Pendekatan ekonomi yang menerangkan
perbedaan‐perbedaan gender.
• Prinsip ekonomi:
– Pengambilan keputusan dalam kelangkaan sumber
daya (Decision making under constraints ‐scarcity)
– Bhw manusia itu selalu bertindak rasional, yi:
• Konsisten: bertindak sama dlm situasi yg sama
• Visioner: mempertimbangkan efek ke depan,jangka
panjang dan dampak tak langsung dari tingkah laku
mrk.
Tetap Gunakan Prinsip Ekonomi
• Scarcity, sumber daya terbatas vs keinginan
tidak terbatas
• Opportunity cost, biaya kesempatan yang
hilang
• Marginal benefit vs marginal cost
• Marginal utility
• Market :
– konsep penawaran (supply) dan permintaan(demand)
dalam pasar (termasuk pasar kerja)
Gender Bias in the Economic Theory
• Sen (1990), suggested perception of roles and
relative value may influence allocation
resources within the household.
• Discrimination suggested that perception of
both women and employers affect wage
determination in the market (Bruce, 1989)
• Blinkers occure! What is these blinkers?
Blinkers and Problems in Economic
Theory
1. Boundary Blinkers
• Invalid assumption about the nature and
importance of boundary between the
household and market is boundary blinkers
(gender blind)
• Boundary blinkers, failure to correctly
specified the “base populartion” for the
measurement of economic activity.
Blinkers and Problems in the Economic
Theory
• Consequences:
– Movements of productive activities from
household to market are intepreted as an increase
in production because the basis for comparison is
not the total universe of economic activity (only
monitise)
• Taking account this problem:
– New household economics (NHE): time allocation
Blinkers and Problems in Economic
Theory
• Clearly seen in:
– National accounting system
– Measurement of economic growth
• Transfer from household production is invisible
• Result of boundary blinkers:
– Disinvestments in human resources, as efficient: transfer
burden from public sector (out of monetise economy)
– Burden falls to household where real but nonmonetise cst
becomes convieniently invisible
– This: false impression of net efficiency gain for both public
sector and economy as a whole
Blinkers and Problems in Economic
Theory
2. Measurement Blinkers
Is to take account accurate recognition of
women’s contribution to economic
preoduction due to under enumeration of
their participation in the labor force.
Simple Microec theory asume work or not
decision is only about allocation of time
between work or leisure
Blinkers and Problems in the Economic
Theory
• Men and women have different activities,
women also bear primarily responsibility for
biological and social reproduction.
• Men: devide time between mutually exclusive
activities
• Women: engage multiple an concurrent
activities (biological reproduction and child
care: continual and large demand demands of
time)
Blinkers and Problems in the Economic
Theory
• GDP, doent measure women and men’s
contribution, the lower the FFP for women,
the lower the contribution and no particular
importance.
• Women’s contribution are overlooked and
underenumerated (contribution to wealth and
welfare of their family and community)
Blinkers and Problems in the Economic
Theory
3. The Specification Problem
Problem arise from the failure of conventional
economics to identify and take to account the
opportunity cost of women’s time.
Opprtunity cost of working includes:
child care, domestic work, community
activities.
Nonmarket activities: treated as costless and
ignored, it is unpriced resource.
Blinkers and Problems in the Economic
Theory
• The key is to use opportunity cost of
nonmonetise activities.
• Women’s domestic activities, create human
capital (health and education and quality of
future generation) therefore contribute to
economic production
Blinkers and Problems in the Economic
Theory
4. The efficiency Problem
Focus in microec: allocative efficiency, defined
by pareto criterion.
Pareto optimum: situation which not posibble to
change allocation of resources without making
someone worse off.
At macro level: short term static allocative
efficeincy is achieved when it is imposible to
rearrange resources to increase total output
Blinkers and Problems in the Economic
Theory
• Dynamic allocative efficiency: Long term resource
allocation
• Effect gender bias:
– Acts as subsidy, unpaid household inputs are unpaid
the true value
– Women’s unpaid family labor subsidised economic
preoduction generally
– Unequal acsess on control of resources.
– Inability to move between jobs, and to search higher
returns, lack the incentives for HH to provide
complementary physical capital or technology to raise
women’s labor productivity
Blinkers and Problems in the Economic
Theory
– Value of women’s reproductive role undervalued
– Lower lifetime earnings, lead to no incentive to
undertake human capital investment among women
5. Contextual Blinkers
Is blinked to the economic significance of social and
institutional context in which economic activity
takes place.
Neglect the role: families, households, social and
cultural norms, conventions and institutions.
(important for women)
Blinkers and Problems in the Economic
Theory
• Family and household considered as moral
economy: individual decision to max utility
• NHE, individuals operate using shadow price
• Values, attitudes, social conventions, behavioral
norms and cultural mores are overlooked
• Neoclassical economic theory assume: agents
behave in fundamentally similar ways. Do they?
They differ by norm, cultural and society values
Blinkers and Problems in the Economic
Theory
• This blinker: made owmen to be ignored by
social and institutions.
• Contextual blinkers: blind fact that social
conventions are another source of allocative
inefficiency, restricting free movement of
female resources to their most productive use.
• By increasing social and psychological cost and
reducing the benefit of market work for
women.
Gender Differentiated Impact of
Macroeconomic Policy
• Affect household through income, prices of
goods consumed, access to public goods amd
household participation in production and
work.
• SR: effects depend on role in household
• LR: effects human capital formation, will
change incentives or capacity to undertake
longrun investments
Konsep dasar perbedaan laki‐laki dan
perempuan dlm ekonomi
• Memakai ukuran‐ukuran tentang pendapatan,
penghasilan, partisipasi angkatankerja, tingkat
kemiskinan, pembagian waktu rumah vs pasar kerja
dll
• Kajian tentang tren perubahan antar waktu
memberikan ilustrasi pemberdayaan peremp.
• Dan mencari latar belakang terjadinya mengapa
terjadi perubahan: mis. perubahan setting organisasi
kemasyarakatan yg menyebabkan terjadinya
perbedaan gender dlm semua aspek ekonomi
Berapa Banyak Laki-laki dan
Perempuan Bekerja
• Diukur dengan Angka Partisipasi Angkatan
Kerja (Labor Force Participation Rate).
• Bekerja = melakukan kegiatan untuk upah, gaji
atau keuntungan (uang atau non‐uang)
• Menganggur= tidak bekerja tetapi sedang
mencari pekerjaan
Trend TPAK
• Data tren TPAK memperlihatkan perubahan
setting dan pemberdayaan perempuan.
• TPAK perempuan meningkat tajam, tetapi
tetap lebih rendah dibanding TPAK laki‐laki
• TPAK laki‐laki relatif stabil, tetapi tetap tinggi
• Mengapa TPAK perempuan meningkat tajam?
(kini lebih banyak perempuan masuk pasar
kerja, ini pemberdayaan perempuan atau
kemiskinan?
Pertanyaan perbedaan gender
(data USA, 1950‐1990)
• Mengapa TPAK perempuan selalu lebih
rendah dari pada laki‐laki?
• Mengapa peningkatan TPAK Perempuan
sangat tajam? Tetapi lebih rendah dari TPAK
laki‐laki?
• TPAK laki‐laki stabil tetap tinggi
• Mengapa tingkat pengangguran perempuan
selalu lebih tinggi dari laki‐laki?
• Mengapa terjadi peningkatan TPAK
perempuan kawin?
• Terutama TPAK perempuan kawin yang
mempunyai anak balita meningkat tajam?
• Perempuan lebih banyak bekerja sebagai
clerical work dan sektor jasa
• Laki‐laki lebih banyak bekerja di menjadi
manager dan professional
• Laki‐laki bekerja di pertambangan, konstruksi,
transport dan utilities (listrik, telpon dll).
Keikutsertaan dalam Serikat Kerja
• Keikut sertaan perempuan pekerja dlm serikat
pekerja lebih rendah dr laki‐laki dan stabil,
tidak berubah
• Kasus perempuan yg ditangani serikat pekerja
juga rendah (peremp 15% laki 20%)
• Tetapi ada tendensi keanggotaan perempuan
dlm SP meningkat dari 18% thn 1950 ke
38%tahun 1990 (jumlh perempuan/jumlh SP).
• Apakah kita punya data tentang ini?
Gender Gap Penghasilan
• Diukur dari rasio penghasilan pr thd lk
• Ada tendensi rasio meningkat, artinya ada
peningkatan penghasilan perempuan
– Peningkatan kualitas kerja pr vs lk?
– Penurunan diskriminsasi thd perempuan di pasar
kerja
– Shift struktur pekerjaan ke arah modern sector –
manufacture, finance, foreign trade
– Convergence of occupational distribution of men
and women? (pekerjaan bisa dilakukan leh pr
maupun lk.)
Bagaimana Kesejahteraan Perempuan
• Penghasilan Pr selalu lebihrendah dari LK
• Akses PR terhadap sumber daya keuangan lebih
rendah dr LK, tdk punya kontrol, tdk menikmati
manfaat, tdk mendapat hak, ketimpangan gender,
tdk ada kesetaraan
• Lk dgn pendapatan tinggi cenderung menikah dgn Pr
pendapatan lebih rendah. Msh berlaku?
• Dilihat dlm keluarga: gabungan pendapatan. Less
variation of income at family level
Household as an Economic Unit
Kompisisi Rumah Tangga (living
arrangement)
• Difinisi rumah tangga (BPS)
• Komposisi: jumlah dan siapa anggota RT
– Keluarga batih (Ortu + anak)
– Keuarga luas (Ortu+anak+orang lain)
– Lain2: three generations under one roof
• Bagaimana pembagian kerjanya?
• Siapa yang lebih berkuasa dlm pengambilan
keputusan ? Kepala RT, KRT bersama isteri?,
Isteri saja?
Keuntungan tinggal bersama vs
sendiri
1. Economies of production – belanja bersama,
masak bersama dll (cost sharing)
2. Internalisasi dr externalisasi
3. Meringankan biaya transaksi
4. Meringankan variasi utilitas karena resource
pooling
Power distribution in household
• Money (yg bawa uang ke rumah lebih
powerful)
• Patriarchy (helping husband maintaining
harmony)
• Children
• Re‐negotiation of power within a household
(kalau suami isteri sama sama bekerja?)
Money as source of power
• Partner yg membawa penghasilan lebih besar
ke rumah, punya power utk ambil keputusan
• Tentang hal‐hal penting: beli rumah, mobil,
perlengkapan rumah, siapa yang tentukan
suami?
• Isteri, pengambil keputusan seputar anak,
dapur,mengunjungi keluarga
• Siapa menentukan isteri untuk ber KB? Dan
jumlah anak yg diinginkan?
Budaya patriarki dan pembagian
kerja
• Idealnya pembagian kerja yg rasional adalah
seimbang antara lk dan pr
• Tapi budaya patriarki cenderung
mengunggulkan lk sebagai bread‐winner,
diskriminasi perempuan di pasar kerja,
menurunkan potensi perempuan untuk
memperoleh pendapatan,seumur hidup
tergantung suami, akses, kontrol dan manfaat
terbatas, tidak ada kesetaraan, gender gap.
Double burden perempuan bekerja
• Meskipun isteri masuk pasar kerja tetapi tetap
mengerjakan pekerjaan rumah tangga,
mengasuh anak, masak, nyuci dll.
• Suami? Mana egalitarianisme?
• Isteri bekerja : market and non market work
• Isteri melepaskan hak leisure time
• Leisure time = non market good?, maka isteri
mendapat share lebih kecil dlm HH total
production
GENDER AND DEMOGRAPHIC
CHANGE
• Gender system: socially constructed
expectations for male and female behaviour
that are found in the society
– Division of labor and responsibility (granted
different rights and obligation)
– Side effect: inequality power between sexes,
autonomy, and well being—disdavantage of
females
• Demographic change: change over time in a
population
– Fertility
– Mortality
– Migration (not a focus in researches)
• What specific variabel must be altered to
influence fertility and mortality
Fertility
• Bongaarts proximate detrminant:
– Age of women becoming sexually active
– Prevalence, duration and intersity of breastfeeding
– Contraceptive use
– Use of abortion
Mortality
• Mosly and Chen: 5 major proximate
determianat s of infant and child mortality:
– Maternal factors (mothers age, number of
previous births, interval
– Environmental contamination
– Nutrient deficiency
– Injury
– Personal illness control
• Individual have important role in affectting
fertility and mortality
• Difficulties in studying gender and
demographic change: no means unique to this
topic, mkin strong causal inerence about
gender systems and demographic change,
complexity of gender system, varying role that
of gender system apear to play under different
circumstances
What DO We Know
• Fertility:
– female education and employement to fertility is
consistant and robust than employement fertility
(positive, nol)
– The relationship is greater among educated
women.
– Female empowerment, reduces fertility and
increase contraceptive use
What Do We Know
• Chilhood Mortality
– Maternal education: increase childhood survival
by women becoming more self confident,
communicative relationship with spouse
– Women’s education:strongly related to chilhood
survival: health care, hygiene
– Women’s employment: increase resources to
improve childrens nutrition or health care
– Partriachal gender system: elevated deaths among
female children.
The Impact of Demographic Change on
Gender Systems
• Historically, demographic change has also
affected gender system change
• How?
• Lower Fertility: women have more fee timeenter LF, have higher education, have own
income, more bargaining power
• The demographic regime: fertility below the
replacement level and high life expectancy as
precondition to gender change.
The Impact of Demographic Change on
Gender Systems
• Scarcity of women: increase their value in
marriage market
• Timing of motherhood and marriage: strong
effects on women’s subsequent achievements
and well being. (autonomy and power within
family)
• Achievement of a modern demographic regime
may be one pre-condition for changes in women’s
and men’s lives that eventually lead to a less
stratified gender system
HOW MUCH DO MEN AND WOMEN
WORK ?
How much Do Men and Women
Work? 
• By age group, marital status, presence of children
(USA, 1948-1992)
– Men:
• Participation decrease among youngger and older age
• Postpone entering labor market: schooling
• Retire at early ages
– Women:
• LFP increase, greater among married women, tripling among
women with preschool children
• Why ?
– Increase demand this increases their wage, draws them into LF
Part time Workers as % of Total
Employment by Sex, 1970, 1980 and
1992
Women
Men
Total
1970
27,5
9,5
16,4
1980
26,8
9,6
16,9
1992
25,4
10,8
17,5
Percentage Distribution of Family Income,
Median, Mean Family Income by Sex, 1988
Men
Women
< $ 5000
2,6
3,9
$ 5000 - 9999
6,5
9,2
$ 10.000- 19.999
16,9
19,2
$20.000 - 29.999
19,5
18,9
$30.000 - 39.999
17,3
16,1
$40.000 - 49.999
13,3
12,3
$50.000 - 74.999
15,3
13,0
$75.000 - 99.999
5,4
4,7
≥ $ 100.000
3,2
2,7
Median Income
$32.039
$ 29.087
Mean Income
$38.732
$ 35.542
Allocation of Time: % Distribution of
Weekly Time Devoted to Various Activities
by Sex, 1985
Women
Men
Personal Care
44
44
Leisure
23
24
Paid Work
13
23
Housework
12
5
Shopping
4
3
Childcare
4
1
Explanation of Women’s LFP
Demand side:
• General rise in labor
• Rise in education of women
Supply factors:
• Rising wages for women
• Changing technology of nonmarket production
• Change in family composition
• Falling male wages
Explanation in the Fall of Men’s LFP
Demand side
• Sectoral decline in labor demand in sectors where
men predominantly employed (manufacturing)
• Increase in substitution of female for male labor
Supply side factors:
• Rising real wages
• Rises in nonearned income
Women’s formal labor force participation
lowest among all regions
Characteristics of women in the labor market
Female Education and Labor Force Participation in MENA and EAP, 1970-2000
Percent
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
Female enrollment in secondary school, MENA
Female labor force particpation, MENA
10
Female enrollment in secondary school, EAP
Female labor force particpation, EAP
0
1970
1980
Note: In East Asia and the Pacific (EAP), secondary enrollment is for 1999 rather than 2000
Source: ILO 1996; World Bank 2003d, 2003j
1990
2000
Characteristics of women in the labor market
Female Unemployment Rates by Educational Level in MENA Countries, Various Years
Female labor force participation and higher
overall employment
Empirical evidence does not support the claim that women’s
increased labor force participation increases unemployment
HOUSEHOLD AS AN ECONOMIC
UNIT
Percentage Distribution of Married Couple
Families by Labor Force Status of Spouse, 1991
Percentage
Husband and Wife in LF
54,0
Husband in LF, Wife not in LF
24,3
Both not in LF
17,0
Wife in LF, Husband not in LF
4,7
How Power is Distributed inHousehold
•
•
•
•
Money as Power
Patriarchy on household sharing
Women care more in children
Renegoriation of sharing rules