(1) Historical development of CALL
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is succinctly defined in a seminal work by Levy (1997: p. 1) as "the search
for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning".[1] CALL embraces a wide range of ICT
applications and approaches to teaching and learning foreign languages, from the "traditional" drill-and-practice programs
that characterised CALL in the 1960s and 1970s to more recent manifestations of CALL, e.g. as used in a virtual learning
environment and Web-based distance learning. It also extends to the use of corpora and concordancers, interactive
whiteboards,[2]Computer-mediated communication (CMC),[3] language learning in virtual worlds, and Mobile-assisted
language learning (MALL).[4]
The term CALI (Computer-assisted language instruction) was in use before CALL, reflecting its origins as a subset of the
general term CAI (Computer-assisted instruction). CALI fell out of favour among language teachers, however, as it
appeared to imply a teacher-centred approach (instructional), whereas language teachers are more inclined to prefer a
student-centred approach, focusing on learning rather than instruction. CALL began to replace CALI in the early 1980s
(Davies & Higgins 1982: p. 3)[5] and it is now incorporated into the names of the growing number of professional
associations worldwide.
An alternative term, Technology-enhanced language learning (TELL),[6] also emerged around the early 1990s: e.g. the
TELL Consortium project, University of Hull.
The current philosophy of CALL puts a strong emphasis on student-centred materials that allow learners to work on their
own. Such materials may be structured or unstructured, but they normally embody two important features: interactive
learning and individualised learning. CALL is essentially a tool that helps teachers to facilitate the language learning
process. It can be used to reinforce what has been already been learned in the classroom or as a remedial tool to help
learners who require additional support.
The design of CALL materials generally takes into consideration principles of language pedagogy and methodology, which
may be derived from different learning theories (e.g. behaviourist, cognitive, constructivist) and second language learning
theories such as Stephen Krashen's monitor hypothesis.
A combination of face-to-face teaching and CALL is usually referred to as blended learning. Blended learning is designed
to increase learning potential and is more commonly found than pure CALL (Pegrum 2009: p. 27).[7]
See Davies et al. (2011: Section 1.1, What is CALL?).[8] See also Levy & Hubbard (2005), who raise the question Why call
CALL "CALL"?[9]
History
CALL dates back to the 1960s, when it was first introduced on university mainframe computers. The PLATO project,
initiated at the University of Illinois in 1960, is an important landmark in the early development of CALL (Marty
1981).[10] The advent of the microcomputer in the late 1970s brought computing within the range of a wider audience,
resulting in a boom in the development of CALL programs and a flurry of publications of books on CALL in the early
1980s.
1
Dozens of CALL programs are currently available on the internet, at prices ranging from free to expensive, [11] and
other programs are available only through university language courses.
There have been several attempts to document the history of CALL. Sanders (1995) covers the period from the mid1960s to the mid-1990s, focusing on CALL in North America.[12] Delcloque (2000) documents the history of CALL
worldwide, from its beginnings in the 1960s to the dawning of the new millennium. [13]Davies (2005) takes a look back
at CALL's past and attempts to predict where it is going.[14] Hubbard (2009) offers a compilation of 74 key articles
and book excerpts, originally published in the years 1988-2007, that give a comprehensive overview of the wide
range of leading ideas and research results that have exerted an influence on the development of CALL or that show
promise in doing so in the future.[15] A published review of Hubbard's collection can be found inLanguage Learning &
Technology 14, 3 (2010).[16]
Butler-Pascoe (2011) looks at the history of CALL from a different point of view, namely the evolution of CALL in the
dual fields of educational technology and second/foreign language acquisition and the paradigm shifts experienced
along the way.[17]
Typology and phases
During the 1980s and 1990s several attempts were made to establish a CALL typology. A wide range of different
types of CALL programs was identified by Davies & Higgins (1985), [18] Jones & Fortescue (1987),[19] Hardisty &
Windeatt (1989)[20] and Levy (1997: pp. 118ff.).[1] These included gap-filling and Cloze programs, multiple-choice
programs, free-format (text-entry) programs, adventures and simulations, action mazes, sentence-reordering
programs, exploratory programs - and "total Cloze", a type of program in which the learner has to reconstruct a
whole text. Most of these early programs still exist in modernised versions.
Since the 1990s it has become increasingly difficult to categorise CALL as it now extends to the use
of blogs, wikis, social networking, podcasting, Web 2.0applications, language learning in virtual
worlds and interactive whiteboards (Davies et al. 2010: Section 3.7).[8]
Warschauer (1996)[21] and Warschauer & Healey (1998)[22] took a different approach. Rather than focusing on the
typology of CALL, they identified three historical phases of CALL, classified according to their underlying pedagogical
and methodological approaches:

Behavioristic CALL: conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and 1970s.

Communicative CALL: 1970s to 1980s.

Integrative CALL: embracing Multimedia and the Internet: 1990s.
Most CALL programs in Warschauer & Healey's first phase, Behavioristic CALL (1960s to 1970s), consisted of drilland-practice materials in which the computer presented a stimulus and the learner provided a response. At first, both
could be done only through text. The computer would analyse students' input and give feedback, and more
sophisticated programs would react to students' mistakes by branching to help screens and remedial activities. While
such programs and their underlying pedagogy still exist today, behavioristic approaches to language learning have
been rejected by most language teachers, and the increasing sophistication of computer technology has led CALL to
other possibilities.
The second phase described by Warschauer & Healey, Communicative CALL, is based on the communicative
approach that became prominent in the late 1970s and 1980s (Underwood 1984).[23] In the communicative approach
the focus is on using the language rather than analysis of the language, and grammar is taught implicitly rather than
explicitly. It also allows for originality and flexibility in student output of language. The communicative approach
coincided with the arrival of the PC, which made computing much more widely available and resulted in a boom in
the development of software for language learning. The first CALL software in this phase continued to provide skill
practice but not in a drill format, for example: paced reading, text reconstruction and language games, but the
computer remained the tutor. In this phase computers provided context for students to use the language, such as
2
asking for directions to a place, and programs not designed for language learning such as Sim
City, Sleuth and Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? were used for language learning. Criticisms of this
approach include using the computer in an ad hoc and disconnected manner for more marginal aims rather than the
central aims of language teaching.
The third phase of CALL described by Warschauer & Healey, Integrative CALL, starting from the 1990s, tried to
address criticisms of the communicative approach by integrating the teaching of language skills into tasks or projects
to provide direction and coherence. It also coincided with the development of multimedia technology (providing text,
graphics, sound and animation) as well as Computer-mediated communication (CMC). CALL in this period saw a
definitive shift of the use of the computer for drill and tutorial purposes (the computer as a finite, authoritative base
for a specific task) to a medium for extending education beyond the classroom. Multimedia CALL started with
interactive laser videodiscs such as Montevidisco (Schneider & Bennion 1984)[24]and A la rencontre de
Philippe (Fuerstenberg 1993),[25] both of which were simulations of situations where the learner played a key role.
These programs later were transferred to CD-ROMs, and new role-playing games (RPGs) such as Who is Oscar
Lake? made their appearance in a range of different languages.
In a later publication Warschauer changed the name of the first phase of CALL from Behavioristic CALL to Structural
CALL and also revised the dates of the three phases (Warschauer 2000): [26]

Structural CALL: 1970s to 1980s.

Communicative CALL: 1980s to 1990s.

Integrative CALL: 2000 onwards.
Bax (2003)[27] took issue with Warschauer & Healey (1998) and Warschauer (2000) and proposed these three
phases:
 Restricted CALL - mainly behaviouristic: 1960s to 1980s.
 Open CALL - i.e. open in terms of feedback given to students, software types and the role of the teacher,
and including simulations and games: 1980s to 2003 (i.e. the date of Bax's article).
 Integrated CALL - still to be achieved. Bax argued that at the time of writing language teachers were still in
the Open CALL phase as true integration could only be said to have be achieved when using CALL had
reached a state of "normalisation" – e.g. when it was as normal as using a pen.
See also Bax & Chambers (2006)[28] and Bax (2011),[29] in which the topic of "normalisation" is revisited.
(2) Principles of technology use in educational settings
Principles of Technology Use in Educational Settings:
a) Know Your Students
It is important to understand the students and what technology they use and are familiar with. Teachers can
use surveys and assessments types to gauge the students on their understanding. Technology and the
English language can’t be taught at the same time.
b) Choosing Materials
Choosing the right materials is also very important. There are stages in choosing technology for ELLs that
go along with what they are ready for and introduce the right subject at the right time. It is important for
the teacher to recognize where the students are at in the process. When choosing technological material the
teacher should consider the students interests and how they already use technology in order to capture their
interest.
c) Students Working With Technology
Students working with technology is one of the biggest challenges of technology integration in the
classroom. Technology enhanced classrooms have been found to promote discovery of learning, learner
autonomy, and learner centeredness. The teacher can promote learner autonomy through the infusion of
ITs and allow the students to work collaboratively in pairs or small groups.
3
d) Language Use
Research in language learning and IT use in classrooms settings have over the years clearly come out in
favor of its beneficial effects on second language development. The use of technology allows students to
communicate freely and helps native and non-native speakers to develop a better sense for the language.
e) Challenges Of Technology Use In Classrooms
Classroom teachers are embracing the use of technology to enhance their classroom teaching more today
than ever before. But in order to effectively use the technology in their classroom they must prepare
themselves for some of the challenges they will face in accomplishing this goal. Listed below are four of
the major issues classroom teachers identify when they discuss the challenges of infusing technology into
their teaching and some brief thoughts you as an aspiring educator might consider in order to prepare
yourself to meet those challenges.

Availability of Technology Hardware

Availability of Technical Assistance

Software Applications

Time to Integrate Technology into Teaching
Challenges of technology use in the classrooms are always going to be presents when working with
technology. There are technical difficulties which might frustrate teachers. The most common problems
are:
- the technical Difficulties (burnt-out bulb in projector to screen freeze in the middle of a
presentation),
- the server being down, and
- broken links on research pages.
It is also important for the teachers to understand that they are no longer going to be the center of the
classroom. The students are able to work independently with the teacher being there to monitor.
References:
http://lmcjuniors.wordpress.com/2012/04/15/2-4-principles-of-technology-use-in-educational-settings-breanna/
http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd
http://www.iccb.org/student/resource/technology/challenges.html
(3) Adapting Web based activities and resources for your
classroom (practical)
Explore the Internet for resources that would be useful for your students:









Exploration: Find a site that provides a virtual field trip to a place students couldn't visit in person.
Timeliness: Locate a site that contains timely information on a topic that might not be available in a book.
Variety: Visit a site that contains different kinds of information than might be found in library resources.
Expanded Search: Do a search on a topic. What unusual information can you find on the topic?
Interaction: Can you find a contact person in your area of interest? Develop an activity that would involve
connecting your students with other students or adults.
Expertise: Can you find information that might be useful in career exploration or a person that could answer
questions your class might have about a topic?
Authenticity: Locate information on your topic that you think would be credible. Why do you think this is a
quality source of information?
Varied Information Types/Communication Channels: Locate information in a sound, graphic, animation,
or video format on your topic.
Motivation: Find something fun in your topic area.
Source: http://eduscapes.com/v2a/fishact.html
4
ESL/EFL Websites for classroom use
by: Dr. Saad Abdul Majeed
There are different ESL/EFL Websites which provide plans for ESL teachers, containing various activities: precreated Web activities for vocabulary, grammar, reading and listening; task-based Web activities that require
students to use the Web to produce certain outcomes; and teacher-made Web activities.
Design
ESL/EFL Websites provide materials for teachers to use in class. There are different lists which contain pre-created
Web activities for grammar, vocabulary, reading and listening and task-based Web activities that require students
to use the Web to produce certain outcomes.
One of the well-known Websites, for teachers to use, is Hot Potatoes (http://hotpot.uvic.ca/), a free Website for
educational use. It contains different activities such as: interactive multiple choice, matching/ordering and gapfilling, crosswords, short-answer exercises and jumbled-sentences. There is also availability for customization of the
generated files. Teachers can make use of the Web tools as the site allows the creation of JavaScript driven
interactive exercises.
Implementation
Teacher's lesson plan can be adapted to suit the material he/she is teaching. Before doing an activity, teachers have
to:
 Students should be taught the Internet concepts and skills needed to carry out the activity
 The teacher introduces the program's concept
 The teacher reads the given instructions and information
Suggested Web Sites:
Vocabulary
http://www.manythings.org/vocabulary/games/a/
http://www.manythings.org/vocabulary/lists/a/
http://www.better-english.com/vocabulary.htm
http://www.world-english.org/intermediate-vocabulary.htm
http://www.world-english.org/adv-vocabulary.htm
http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/200/vocab/index.htm
Grammar
http://a4esl.org/a/g.html
http://www.learnenglishfeelgood.com/esl-english-grammar-exercises.html
http://www.grammar-quizzes.com/
https://sites.google.com/a/mail.ccsf.edu/esl/home/esl-grammar-index-of-online-resources
http://www.better-english.com/grammar.htm
Listening and Speaking
http://www.esl-lab.com/guide.htm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/
http://www.dailystep.com/?gclid=CJLZ8c6vsLUCFeXKtAodVGIAVA
http://www.manythings.org/listen/
5
http://www.1-language.com/audiocourse/index.htm
http://www.fonetiks.org/
http://www.world-english.org/tonguetwisters.htm
Reading
http://www.englishclub.com/reading/index.htm
http://www.world-english.org/webquests.htm
http://www.world-english.org/reading-comprehension.htm
http://www.world-english.org/english_reading.htm
http://www.world-english.org/improve_reading_skills.htm
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/399513.stm
Writing
http://lklivingston.tripod.com/essay/
http://www.1-language.com/essayedge/index.html
http://www.paragraphpunch.com/
http://www.certifiedchinesetranslation.com/essays/
http://www.school-for-champions.com/writing.htm
http://www8.esc.edu/esconline/across_esc/writerscomplex.nsf/wholeshortlinks2/The+Write+Way+Men
u?opendocument
http://www.csuohio.edu/academic/writingcenter/writproc.html
Games/Quizzes
http://www.better-english.com/hangman/hangone.htm
http://www.1-language.com/memorymatchelem/index.htm
http://www.1-language.com/eslquizzes/adverbs.htm
http://www.1-language.com/eslhangman/index.htm
http://buckhoff.topcities.com/TWE%20home%20page.htm
http://www.eslgamesplus.com/classroom-games/
PowerPoint Lessons
http://www.elcivics.com/esl_powerpoint_lessons.html
http://www.english-4kids.com/powerpoint.html
http://www.abcteach.com/directory/interactive-powerpoint-interactive-files-9616-2-1
http://www.worldofteaching.com/englishpowerpointspresentations.html
http://chrisspeck.wordpress.com/2010/01/16/complete-lessons-using-powerpoint-for-esol-esl-ielts-part1/
Tests
http://takeielts.britishcouncil.org/prepare-test/free-practice-tests
http://www.edufind.com/english/englishtests/list_of_english_tests.php
http://www.englishtown.com/online/home.aspx
6
http://www.world-english.org/test.htm
http://www.world-english.org/english_test.htm
http://www.world-english.org/english_assessment_tests.htm
http://www.world-english.org/angielski_english.htm
http://www.world-english.org/tests.htm
Evaluation
Questionnaire
The usefulness of the Web-based Language Learning (WBLL) activities
Strongly Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly
Disagree
Agree
1 I enjoyed the Web activities.
2 I learned a lot from the Web activities.
3 I found that the Web site was well
presented.
4 I gained confidence in my ability to use the
Web for learning purposes.
5 The experiences in Web-based language
learning made this course more
interesting.
6 I would like to use more Web-based
language learning activities during class
time.
7 I would like to access Web activities myself
outside class time.
Son, Jeong-Bae, "Using Web-Based Language Learning Activities in the ESL Classroom" International
Journal of Pedagogies and Learning, 4(4), pp. 34-43. August 2008. University of Southern Queensland,
Australia. Available at: http://eprints.usq.edu.au/4338/1/Son_IJPL_v4n4.pdf
(4) Designing language learning materials using available language
learning author ware (Practical)
Authorware
Authorware is the leading visual authoring tool for creating rich-media e-learning
applications for delivery on corporate networks, CD/DVD, and the Web. Develop
accessible applications that comply with learning management system (LMS) standards.
Macromedia Authorware
From: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Authorware
Macromedia Authorware (now part of Adobe Systems) was an interpreted, flowchart-based,
graphical programming language. Authorware is used for creating interactive programs that can
integrate a range of multimedia content, particularly e-learning applications. The flowchart model
differentiates Authorware from other authoring tools, such asAdobe Flash and Adobe Director,
which rely on a visual stage, time-line and script structure.
7
History
Authorware was originally produced by Authorware Inc., founded in 1987 by Dr Michael Allen. Allen
had contributed to the development of the PLATO computer-assisted instruction system during the 1970s
that was developed jointly by the University of Illinois and Control Data Corporation. CDC, where Allen
was Director of Advanced Instructional Systems R&D, invested heavily in the development of an
expansive library of interactive "courseware" to run on the PLATO system.
PLATO courseware was developed in a unique programming language called TUTOR, which provided
structures unique to learning interactions, such as answer judging and branching. TUTOR programmers
were able to build powerful scripted systems that included simulations and games. However, despite the
intent to create a special-purpose programming language usable by educators, and the decades of work that
went into it, the TUTOR language was not easy to learn.
Authorware started as a system aimed at addressing the problems in TUTOR. Originally titled Course of
Action (CoA), it was a Macintosh-only program, but produced runtime programs for both the Mac
and DOS. Authorware came later and produced DOS runtime versions until the release of the
first Microsoft Windows version.
Authorware used a visual interface with icons, representing essential components of the interactive learning
experience. "Authors" placed icons along a “flowline” to create a sequence of events. Icons represented
such components as Display—put something on the screen, Question—ask the learner for a response,
Calc—perform a calculation, read data, and/or store data, and Animate—move something around on the
screen. By simply placing the icons in sequence and adjusting their properties, authors could instantly see
the structure of program they were creating and, most importantly, run it to see what learners would see.
On-screen changes were easy to make, even while the program was running.
Authorware became a rapid success in the marketplace, obtaining more than 80% of the market in about
three years. Authorware Inc. merged with MacroMind/Paracomp in 1992 to form Macromedia. In
December 2005, Adobe and Macromedia merged, under the Adobe Systems name. The most recent version
of Authorware is 7.02; version 7 was released in 2003. The Authorware player has some issues
with Internet Explorer 7 and later under Windows Vista due to Protected mode as well as runtime errors
due to a bug in Authorware's implementation of ReadURL() Javascript function.[1]
It was generally known in the Authorware development community that version 8.0 was in production
prior to the merger between the two companies, with 4 beta versions released to external testing shortly
before the merger was completed. Among several other features intended for the new version, the ability to
publish to Flash's SWF (ShockWave Flash) was at the top of the list. Once production shifted to Adobe's
off-shore development facility in Bangalore, India, the free-flow of information that had been enjoyed
between Macromedia's engineering team and its beta testers was curtailed. On Friday, August 3, 2007, after
several years of keeping the development community in limbo, Adobe finally announced its plans to
discontinue development of Authorware.
Usage & features
Authorware's distinctive style revolves around a central icon: the Interaction Icon. The structure of the
authoring environment encourages rich interaction; complex user feed-back is not only possible but
somewhat suggested by the software, rather than suggesting the usual media diffusion. This Interaction
Icon allows various forms of user feedback (move object to, along a line, click an object or hot-spot; plus
the usual text-entry, keypress, etc.)
The original strength in education of Authorware could be linked to its roots in pedagogical models based
on constructivist views.
Authorware programs start by creating a flowline, which is a flowchart showing the structure of the
developer's program. The developer can add and manage text, graphics, animation, sound and video;
develop interactivity and add navigational elements such as links, buttons, and menus. Macromedia
8
Flash and Macromedia Director movies can also be integrated into an Authorware project. Xtras, or addins, can also be used to extend the functionality of Authorware, which is similar to HyperCard's XCMDs.
Authorware's power can be even better utilized with the use of variables, functions and expressions.
Authorware can interpret both its built-in proprietary scripting language and JavaScript version 1.5.
Over time, Authorware has lost its specificity. More power was gained as more scripting added graphical
design, interaction and integration features, but Authorware's special interaction-centred, clean, simple
design was lost along the way. However, there are still many Fortune 500 companies that use Authorware
as their main platform.
Authorware programs can be distributed as stand-alone executable files, or over the web which requires a
proprietary Authorware Web Player.
Use in E-Learning
Authorware is particularly well suited to creating e-learning content, as it includes highly customizable
templates for CBT and WBT, including student assessment tools. Working with these templates, businesses
and schools can rapidly assemble multimedia training materials without needing to hire a full-fledged
programmer. Intuitively-named dialog boxes take care of input and output. The flow chart model makes the
re-use of lesson elements extremely straightforward. Being both AICC- and SCORM-compliant,
Authorware can be used to deliver content via any AICC or SCORM Learning Management System.
Moving beyond the templates, however, requires either the importing of interactive Flash or Director
movies, or scripting, which can be done in Authorware's native scripting language or in JavaScript.
(5) Courseware and Website evaluation
What is courseware?
Courseware is educational material intended as kits for teachers or trainers or as tutorials for students,
usually packaged for use with a computer. Courseware can encompass any knowledge area, but
information technology subjects are most common. Courseware is frequently used for delivering education
about the personal computer and its most popular business applications, such as word processing and
spreadsheet programs. Courseware is also widely used in information technology industry certification
programs, such as the Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer ( MCSE ) and the Computing Technology
Industry Association's A+ examination.
Courseware can include:
 Material for instructor-led classes
 Material for self-directed computer-based training (CBT)
 Web sites that offer interactive tutorials
 Material that is coordinated with distance learning, such as live classes conducted over the Internet
 Videos for use individually or as part of classes
9
The CD-ROM is the most common means of delivering courseware that is not offered online. For teachers
and trainers, courseware content may include set-up information, a course plan, teaching notes, and
exercises.
Source: http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/courseware
Reading summary: An Integrated Framework for CALL Courseware Evaluation
By Philip Hubbard
The writer mainly suggested two frameworks for CALL courseware evaluation.
1. Using Hubbard’s framework approach to evaluate courseware, the framework consists of four
principles which include:
Principle 1: the evaluation framework should be linked to a general framework for language
teaching methodology. That is, it should build as much as possible on already established
views of how to analyze the effectiveness of the language learning process.
- Principle 2: the evaluation framework should be designed to accommodate as wide a range as
possible of methods, teachers, learners, and syllabus goals. It should be flexible and nonjudgmental in its basic categories and not biased toward any particular view of the nature of
language and learning.
- Principle 3: the evaluation framework should be linked in form and terminology to frameworks for
courseware development and implementation. In other words, the evaluation process should
not be isolated from the process of developing and using courseware, but should instead
comprise just one module of a comprehensive methodological
- Principle 4: the evaluation framework should express the multiple dependencies among the
various components of CALL. The framework should not be designed to support an
evaluation process that operates exclusively in a linear manner because the components
clearly interact in non-linear ways.
2. Referring to Richards and Rodgers’ teaching /learning process: Language teaching methods should go
through three organizational levels which include (i) procedure, (ii) design, and (iii) approach. In
addition it should embody teacher, technique and materials.
(i)
Operational description or Procedure
Evaluate whether the courseware consists of central and peripheral parts. The central part is the
software which would better driven by different activities (vocabulary, grammar …) with
various activity type (game, quiz, text reconstruction…) and different presentation schemes
(multiple choice questions, picture and word matching…). In addition, the evaluator should pay
attention on the screen layout (print size, spacing, presents and quality of animation…), timing
(monitoring time on a task, the rate at which information appears on the screen…), and the
control (say, can learners choose a particular activity, produce their own materials…), help
options, input judging and feedback (correct/incorrect response, done with words…)
(ii)
Design
Evaluate whether the courseware considered the target users, their variables, the syllabus and
the environment.
(iii)
Teaching approach should be teacher fit and learner fit.
Teacher fit means evaluating courseware with linguistic theories and language teaching/
learning theories. The writer said that computer is only a delivery system for language input.
The writer suggested referring to the two types of Richards and Rodgers’ language learning
assumptions: Considerate the learner’s age, motivation, first language interference and the
influence of environment; as well as Hubbard’s evaluation criteria for explicit learning: Give
meaningful, contextualized coherent discourse, provide hints to lead student to make correct
answers, accepts appropriate alternative correct answers, offers the option of explanations for
correct answers and incorrect answers. Other considerations include sequencing, the treatment
of learner differences, the role of culture, the nature of memory etc.
10
The writer also suggested evaluators to make predictions on courseware’s effectiveness and efficiency,
say, can students learn or practice some area of the target language, and are they willing to spend
enough time using the software and budget should be considered as well.
Self reflection:
Courseware evaluation seems like buying clothes. There are great varieties of choices, consumer should
choose according to their financial situations, personal preference, their needs as well as the price and
quality of the goods.
References
Baltra, A. "An EFL Classroom in a Mystery House." TESOL Newsletter 18.6 (1984), p. 15. Brown, H. Principles
of Language Learning and Teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall (1987).
Curtin, C. and Shinall, S. "Teacher Training for CALL and its Implications." in W. Flint Smith, ed. Modern
Media in Foreign Language Education: Theory and Implementation. Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook
(1987), pp. 255-285.
Higgins, J. "Can Computers Teach?" CALICO Journal, 1.2 (1983), pp. 4-6.
Higgins, J. and Higgins, M. Sequitur. New York: RDA Mind Builders (1987).
Hubbard, P. "Language Teaching Approaches, the Evaluation of CALL Software, and Design Implications." in
W. Flint Smith, ed. op. cit., pp. 228-254.
______. "Two Steps Toward a New Methodology for CALL (Part I)." CALL Digest 4.2 (1988a) pp. 7-8.
______. "Toward a Comprehensive Methodological Framework for CALL Software Development," Paper
presented at International TESOL Convention, Chicago, March 1988 (1988b).
______. "Review of Reading Strategy Series." CALICO Journal, 5.4 (1988c), pp. 90-95.
______. "The Teacher in the Machine." CATESOL Newsletter, 19.6 (1988d), pp. 5-6.
Krashen, S. and Terrell, T. The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. Hayward, CA:
Alemany Press. (1984).
Lougheed, L., Overton, M. and Combes, P. Reading Strategy Series. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
Regents (1987).
Odell, A. "Evaluating CALL Software." in G. Leech and C. Candlin, eds. Computers in English Language
Teaching and Research. New York: Longman (1986), pp. 61-78.
Phillips, M. "Logical Possibilities and Classroom Scenarios for the Development of CALL." in C. Brumfit, M.
Phillips, and P. Skehan, eds. Computers in English Language Teaching. New York: Pergamon (1985), pp.
25-46.
Richards, J. and Rodgers, T. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching: A Description and Analysis. New
York: Cambridge University Press (1986).
(6) Designing a web sites using a simple web design software
(practical)
Doing web projects with ESL students
From: http://esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/webp.htm
The paper below was presented at the ECIS-ESL conference in Vienna on 17 February 2001. The author
and presenter works as an ESL teacher at Frankfurt International School. He has been doing web projects
with ESL classes for the past 3 years.
Overview
 Why should I do a web project with my ESL class?
 How can my students make web pages?
 What needs to be done to complete web projects?
 What problems may arise and how can I deal with them?
 Where can I find out more about doing web projects with my students?
11
Why should I do a web project with my ESL class?
Doing a web project with an ESL class is not something to be undertaken lightly. Web projects require
sustained hard work from both students and teachers if they are to be brought to a successful conclusion. It
is important, therefore, that teachers are convinced of the pedagogical value of such an undertaking. A
good starting point for any decision to do a web project is a consideration of how it would fit within
existing ESL teaching practice at your school and whether the necessary time can be spared to complete the
project properly. A web project could be done as something additional to the usual practice of working
through an ESL coursebook such as The New Cambridge English Course. Alternatively, the project may fit
seamlessly into the existing curriculum model and teaching philosophy of the ESL department.
To exemplify the second of these alternatives, it is useful to look briefly at the ESL curriculum model at
Frankfurt International School (FIS). The ESL curriculum in the middle school at FIS is topic-based. ESL
students study 4 or 5 major topics during the school year that have some link to their mainstream
curriculum; topics include ecological problems, inventions, healthy living, disasters, the class field trip to
London and so on. Topic-based work allows the integration of language learning with various skills, as
shown in the model below.
Language
Language learning skills
 listening
 how to be a good listener
 speaking
 how to speak better
 reading
 how to be a good reader
 writing
 how to write well (using the writing process)
 grammar
 how to learn vocabulary
 vocabulary
 how to make a good speech
Topic
Study skills
Computer skills
 how to take good notes
 how to write using the computer
 how to use the library
 how to use a spellcheck
 how to do research
 how to make a speadsheet
 how to use a dictionary
 how to make a database
 how to manage time
 how to search the world wide web
 how to study for tests
 how to write for the web
It should be clear that the FIS topic-based curriculum model is a suitable framework into which a web
project can be embedded. It is equally clear of course that the FIS model works without involving the
students in web projects. There must be some further reasons why teachers would wish to go to the trouble
of doing a web project with their class. Here, briefly, are some of the more compelling ones:
Positive attitude of learners
A large majority of students really enjoy using computers, and are motivated to work much harder to
complete their work. And of course they are at the same time learning computing skills that are becoming
ever more important in the outside world.
Learner-centred activities
Another motivational factor is the amount of learner autonomy that web projects permit. Students can be
allowed varying degrees of freedom in their choice of topic title and content, as well as in the design of
their web pages. They can be involved in planning the stages of project completion, assessing the content
and presentation of their fellow students’ pages and evaluating the success of the project as a whole.
12
Co-operative groups
Web projects lend themselves very well to co-operative groupings. Different students can be set to research
different aspects of a topic, which they then have to put together into a coherent whole. Very often some
students will have computer skills and knowledge that others in the group do not have. In these cases those
students can be set to teach their colleagues; and in many cases, they can teach the teacher. This kind of
authentic sharing of skills and knowledge is very empowering to students, and a good preparation for many
work situations when students leave school.
Authenticity
There has been a lively debate about the importance of authenticity in English language teaching (ELT).
Although probably few ESL teachers nowadays would take the strong position (and avoid using any
specially-prepared materials), it is equally clear that one of the most important reasons for the growth in the
use of the Internet in ELT has been the easy availability of a huge amount of authentic material. The world
wide web is a natural resource for students researching for a web project. At the same time the teacher has
the opportunity - in an authentic context - to teach the essential skills of finding and evaluating information
in digital form. In addition, students usually take more care with their writing, both its content and the
mechanics, when they know that there is an authentic audience.
Web projects have been called Real work for real people in the real world. That someone on the other side
of the world can read their writing and possibly send them a response often motivates students to create
work of a standard far beyond what they usually produce.
Permanence
In most cases students work disappears into their binders when it has been returned by the teacher, and is
never seen again. Work posted on the web has a greater permanence and for this reason alone may be taken
more seriously by the student. Web pages can be readily added to an electronic portfolio of a student’s
work. Apart from this, work posted on the web can serve as a model and inspiration to students doing
future projects.
How can my students make web pages?
Having made the decision to do a web project with your ESL students, you now have to choose the method
of preparing pages for viewing on the web. Every web page must be written in a computer language called
HTML, which stands for Hypertext Markup Language. Pages in this format can be read by programs called
browsers, which interpret the code and present the familiar mix of text and graphics. (Microsoft Internet
Explorer and Netscape Navigator are currently the two most popular browsers.)
The text in the yellow box below shows a example of a simple HTML file. The words between the brackets
< > are called tags; they instruct the browser how to present the content of the page.
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Grade 8 ESL ecology project</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<H2>Ozone Hole</H2>
<P>This is the first paragraph. It contains a
<A href="linkfile.htm">link to another file.</A>
</P>
13
<P>This is the second paragraph containing a graphic:<BR>
<IMG src="graphic.gif">
</P>
</BODY>
</HTML>
The following yellow box shows how the page would be presented by a browser. The tags have
disappeared of course.
Ozone Hole
This is the first paragraph. It contains a link to another file.
This is the second paragraph containing a graphic:
There are many different methods of producing the HTML code that is required by the browser in order to
present the page in the desired way. The method you choose will depend on your own interest in and
knowledge of HTML programming, and the type of software to which your students have access. Below is
a list of the some of the possibilities with a brief discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of each:

Use a simple text editor and have the students write in all the necessary tags as well as the
desired content.
Advantages
o Cheap and available - the editors come free with the operating systems; (e.g. Notepad comes
with Windows)
o Full control over the production and appearance of the page.
o Experts can create lean code to produce exactly the desired effect
o Lean code pages load faster
Disadvantages
o Presupposes teacher and/or students have knowledge of HTML tags
o Much more typing
o Much greater possibility of inserting incorrect tags
o Very difficult to produce complex web pages
o Not WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) - need to have a browser open to see effects
of changes

Use an HTML template which contains most of the necessary tags. Students then add content
and a smaller number of their own tags as necessary.
Advantages
o Cheap and available - the editors come free with the operating systems
o Not so much typing of tags as option 1
o Allows standardization of page format
o Allows full control of page output
Disadvantages
o Presupposes teacher and/or students have knowledge of HTML tags
o Problem of mistyping tags
14
o
o

Needs a lot of knowledge to do anything complicated
Not WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) - need to have a browser open to see effects
of changes
Use a Word Processor like Microsoft Word 97 and save the pages as HTML files.
Advantages
o Most students already know how to use a word processor
o Can use functions such as spellcheck, thesaurus, making tables
o Program puts in all the necessary tags (no knowledge of HTML is necessary)
o Relatively easy to set the page out as required
o Can easily try out and discard many different page designs
Disadvantages
o Program may not be available (or is expensive to buy)
o Produces bloated and very complex code (that is difficult to fine-tune to produce desired
effect)
o Bloated code pages load more slowly
o What you see is often not what you get because of proprietary tags

Use a dedicated web page editor.
Advantages
o Program puts in all the necessary tags (no knowledge of HTML is necessary)
o Many simple editors are readily available (can be downloaded free or come with the
browser (e.g. Frontpage Express or Netscape Composer )
o Some editors have an interface similar to popular word processors
o WYSIWYG - what appears in the editor window is very similar to what will appear in the
browser
o Can easily try out and discard many different page designs
o Many programs have site management tools (e.g. to check links)
Disadvantages
o The best programs are expensive (e.g. Dreamweaver)
o Some programs have high learning curve
o Produces very complex code (that is difficult to fine-tune to produce desired effect)
There is no reason why a combination of these methods should not be used. For example, you could start
with a simple template to ensure that basic page elements are the same for all students, and then use a web
editor to put in individualized special effects. Of course this approach can add to the complexity of the
project for both teachers and students.
What needs to be done to complete web projects?
Once you have made the decision on how the HTML pages are to be produced, you are ready to introduce
the project to the students. The following list shows the most important stages leading to the completion of
the web project, once the main theme has been decided and the specific sub-topics have been allocated to
individual students or groups.
 Plan and research the topic
15








Compose, revise and edit drafts
Introduce HTML and the basic tags
Decide on page formatting
Convert the final draft to HTML format
Incorporate visual material in the pages
Check in a browser that everything works
Publish on the web
Assess individual students' work and evaluate the success of the project as a whole
Notes and Tips
Here are some more suggestions on how to bring the web project to a successful conclusion:
 Keep tabs on progress
It is useful to have a fairly firm deadline in mind by which time the project is to be completed.
Working back from the final deadline, you can decide how much time to allow to the various stages
of the project. Many students benefit from having a checklist in their binder or on prominent
display in the classroom. They can then mark each stage as it is completed. It is useful to spend a
few minutes at the beginning of each lesson finding out what the students intend to work on in that
lesson.
Be prepared for the deadlines to be pushed back. It is almost certain you will need more time than
you planned for your first project!

Save work in one place
It is strongly recommended that all the students’ web pages, including graphics files, are stored in a
single folder or directory. This makes file management much easier to control. (See the next
paragraph for further reasons to follow this advice. ) It also makes a lot of sense to tell the students
which file names they should use for their work, rather than let them call the files any name they
choose. If you have the students complete a small wall chart with the name of their file and its
contents, it makes it easier for you to keep a check on progress and for other students to put in cross
links from their own pages.
All files should have the suffix .htm or .html or they cannot be read by the browser. In general it is
better to use a name of 8 letters or less; e.g. ozone1.htmor airpoll3.htm.

Use relative (internal) links
Students will want to put links in their page to a separate page in the same project suite. For
example, a link from their project page to their personal page; or from their project page to the
project homepage. Wherever the link leads to, there is a choice between using an absolute reference
and a relative reference. An absolute reference contains the complete path to (or location of) the file
being linked to; for example:
<A href=http://esl.fis.edu/eslweb/parents/easy/future.htm>.
A relative link to the same file would look like this:
<A href=future.htm>.
As you can see the relative link is much shorter and has the further advantage that it will still work
even if the project files are moved to a different location. However, one very important condition
16
must be fulfilled in order that this should be the case: All the project files must be saved in one and
the same directory (folder). You will spare yourself a lot of problems if you follow this advice.
What problems may arise and how can I deal with them?
In such a long-term and complex project, there are many problems waiting to happen. If you are aware of
the likely difficulties, however, you will be in a better position to head them off. Here are some of the
potential problems, with suggestions on how to avoid them or deal with them if they arise.

Students finishing at different times
A very common problem with any long-term project is that students will work at different paces
and some may be finished (or think they are) before others have even got going. One way to
preclude a too great variation in the speed at which students progress through the various stages is
to have fairly rigid deadlines. For example, students could be told that they have only three lessons
in which to research their topic, or that the first draft must be done by a certain date. Any student in
danger of not meeting these deadlines can be set to complete the work at home.
In the case of web projects, however, there is a certain advantage in some students finishing before
others since there are many tasks they can perform to help in the overall completion of the project.
Here are some suggestions on what they can do:
o work on the homepage of the project and put in all the necessary links to the various project
pages
o scan in photos or prepare visual material for other students
o take responsibility for the overall project design and ensure that the necessary tags are
included in the completed pages
Another excellent way to occupy early-bird students is to have them make a personal page. (In fact,
you may wish all students to have this opportunity, in which case some students will need to work
at home in order to get finished.)

Students with no computer skills
Some students may have had no prior experience in using the computer. The concepts of cutting
and pasting, opening and saving files may be totally unfamiliar to them. They may never have
surfed the net and may be unfamiliar with the keyboard. If the class contains many such students, I
recommend putting off doing a web project with the group until the students have acquired some
fundamental skills. Web projects are demanding enough without having to learn basic file
management and text manipulation techniques, let alone keyboard skills, at the same time. If there
are only one or two such students in the class, they will probably learn quickly enough from their
more computer-literate peers. Alternatively, they could be set tasks that involve book research and
hand-writing of notes ready for computer entry.

Lack of knowledge by teacher
Clearly, if you the teacher have only rudimentary computer skills and no knowledge at all of
HTML, then doing a web project with your class is going to be problematic. However, there is no
need to give up the idea entirely. If you are really keen to give your students the chance to work on
such a project, you could do the following:
o
see if a student has knowledge and have him or her teach you and the others
17
o
o
team up with a knowledgeable colleague and do the project together
enlist the help of the support staff to teach the necessary computing skills
The long-term answer to such a problem, if you have the time and the interest, is to learn a little of
the required skills. There is no question that it is much more comfortable to do a web project with
your students if you yourself have some rudimentary knowledge.



Discipline
Web projects require that the teacher spends a good deal of time working with individual students
or groups. There is therefore great potential for the other students to be off task and possibly even
disruptive (although as noted above, students are usually very keen to work with computers and will
not wish to lose this privilege). It helps if the teacher has already done a fair amount of non-web
project work with the class - and so the students are familiar with procedures and expectations. For
this reason it is not recommended that the teacher starts the year doing a web project with a new
class. It may also be thought undesirable to attempt such a project at all with a particular group of
students, although it could be that the greater individual freedom is an additional motivating factor
for some otherwise disaffected students.
Copyright issues
Researching on the web offers easy opportunities, through cutting and pasting, to use other people's
work and ideas. It is equally easy to use other people's graphics. It is important to sensitize students
to issues of copyright and plagiarism, and to tell them you will not accept any pages that infringe in
these areas. In general a discussion of this topic plus knowledge on the student's part that you will
read carefully through all pages will be sufficient to preclude any major problems.
Inclusion of inappropriate content
If students are producing a personal page as part of the project, there is a danger that they may
include inappropriate or even offensive content. They may also make a link to a pornographic,
racist or otherwise offensive site. An increasing number of prospective parents are using websites
as a way of gaining information about which school to send their children to. It would certainly
reflect very poorly on a school that allowed offensive material to be published on its web site.
This can be precluded if you make it clear to students that their personal pages will be checked
carefully before uploading onto the web site. It is then necessary to actually carry out this check on
each and every link.

Undesirable targeting of project students
Unfortunately there exists a certain small percentage of web users who surf around looking for
minors to target with offers of offensive materials or practices. One way to preclude having your
students approached in this way is to advise them not to have a link on their site to their private email address. If you want to be really careful, you can have them include only their first name or a
nickname.
Where can I find out more about HTML and doing web projects?
At this point you may still be unsure whether you want to commit yourself to the complex, time-consuming
demands of doing a web project with your ESL students. You first want to find out more from other
teachers who have done web projects with their classes.
18
Alternatively, you may feel tempted to take the plunge but would like to learn a little about HTML before
you start. Whatever further information you want, the obvious place to look is on the web itself. Out of the
ever-growing number of useful sites, I have listed one or two below that offer a good starting point for
further investigation.







Web projects for the EFL class
Student-authored web pages as an ESL writing tool
Two general introductions to the major issues concerned with doing web projects with ESL
students.
Webmonkey for kids
HTML for the conceptually challenged
Aimed at younger web writers. Contain instruction in HTML tags and advice on web page design.
How to make a successful EFL teacher's web page
Advice in all aspects of making web pages, but aimed at teachers, not students.
Designing effective EFL web pages
Webwise - an internet resource for teachers
Contain tutorials in all aspects of writing web pages with schoolchildren, with specific advice on
using Netscape composer and Microsoft Word 97
Advice on how to design web pages that look good and load quickly. (Assumes basic knowledge of
HTML.)
NoteTab Light
NoteTab Light is an excellent text editor that allows the easy addition of HTML tags to an HTML
page. It can be downloaded free.
Finally, you may wish to look at a web project done by ESL students at Frankfurt International School.
This was done within about 3 hours of class time, using HTML templates that I had prepared. The students
wrote the texts in Word and then copied them into the HTML template. Students taught each other to scan
in photos on a rolling basis. (We started with a student who already knew how to use a scanner. She taught
a couple of scanner-illerates, who in their turn taught the next ones, and so on.)
(7) Web-Based CALL (tutorial and CMC)
Computer Mediated Communication
From: http://www.stanford.edu/~efs/callcourse2/CALL3.htm
OVERVIEW
The past unit dealt largely with dedicated CALL courseware, or tutorial CALL, and other types of
computer-based resources; however, in many cases the tool uses may be more appropriate for a given
teaching approach or teacher's experience, or may serve a given learning situation better. In one category of
tool uses, computer-mediated communication, or CMC, computers are a means through which teachers
communicate with learners, learners communicate with one another and learners may even communicate
with native speakers. That communication takes place through variations in the following elements:
timing (synchronous or asynchronous), number and patterning of participants (one to one, one to many, or
many to many), and medium (text, voice, or video). In addition, the physical properties of the device may
offer a significant variable, such as the difference between email on a computer and text messaging on a
mobile phone. In this unit we will briefly examine the options and then go over some of the rationale for
various uses to support language learning.
19
The TESOL Technology Standards address this area for both learners and teachers. Learner Goal 3,
Standard 3 states: "Language learners appropriately use and evaluate available technology-based tools for
communication and collaboration." Teacher Goal 4, Standard 1 says: "Language teachers use
communication technologies to maintain effective contact and collaboration with peers, students,
administration, and other stakeholders."
TEXT-BASED CMC
Due to both the history of technology development and the ease of text use, most CMC has been done
using the medium of text. We will look at the text uses both for their own value and as a vehicle for
introducing concepts relevant to audio and video-based CMC.
Asynchronous text. The first use of CMC in language teaching almost certainly came through email
exchanges from teachers to students and among students within classes. Email is an example
of asynchronous communication, in that the interaction is not in real time: You create and send an email,
and the recipient typically gets it within a second or so, but may not read it or respond until much later.
Under such circumstances, there are clear differences between email and conversation that go beyond the
use of text as a medium.
Email can be used for a number of purposes. Teachers can receive homework from students and give
responses to it. Students can communicate with one another to practice using the language, to discuss
issues, to fulfill communicative tasks, or to collaborate on projects. For instance, a student could interview
another through email, asking a set of questions, getting the answers, and then reporting the result in class
the next day. Teachers can also assign information gap activities, where students are paired and each has
some of the information both need to complete a task. Outside of the class, students can communicate with
"keypals", the equivalent of traditional penpals: there are a number of sites that provide services for linking
up such as Interpals (www.interpals.net/). ePals (www.epals.com/) serves as a clearinghouse for teachers
looking for partners in other countries for keypal exchanges or collaborative projects. In the case of EFL, it
may be easier to find classes of other English language learners in another city or even another country to
communicate with.
Another form of asynchronous communication is discussion lists or listservs, where the email goes out to
groups rather than individuals (one to many). There are two alternatives for this: email from anyone on the
list can be delivered automatically to everyone on the list, or the messages can be maintained on the web so
that list members can check in and browse the subject lines: many lists now do both. The latter are
equivalent in many ways to web-based discussion boards, which may be limited to members (like lists) or
be open to anyone who finds them. A popular one for ESL learners is Dave's ESL Cafe
(www.eslcafe.com/students), but there are many others on the web. An advantage of these (besides limiting
the clutter in people's email) is that discussions can be "threaded", where communications regarding new
topics and subtopics are kept separate. Students can log into existing discussion lists or teachers with
appropriate software can create their own for a class. Email lists and discussion boards are critical for
online learning and are integrated into course management systems
like Blackboard (www.blackboard.com), and Moodle(www.moodle.org) (see Unit 8). Other places for
asynchronous discussion are the comment sections attached to media reports and stories
(e.g., www.usatoday.com), blogs, and postings on social networking sites
like Facebook (http://www.facebook.com).
The increasing use of mobile phones, including smart phones, has brought about a specific type of short,
asynchronous CMC, the text message or SMS. The most famous version of this in the social networking
environment is Twitter (www.twitter.com).
An important consideration for these communicative assignments is to get them to fit into the course
curriculum in some reasoned fashion. Ideally, like other class activities and homework, they should not just
constitute entertainment or "busy work". As we will see in Unit 7 (learner training), it is also important to
take time to prepare students for these activities and to hold regular debriefings to clarify their objectives.
20
Synchronous Text. With synchronous text, or chat, the messages are exchanged in text form, but in real
time. Some of the early research on CMC was built around a type of chat program, InterChange, that was
part of the recently discontinued Daedalus Integrated Writing Environment system (www.daedalus.com).
Students could carry out synchronous discussion in a computer classroom using this tool. While this may
seem odd at first (if they are in the same room, why not have them discussing orally face to face?), a
number of studies have shown that some students communicate more when they don't have to speak or be
face to face with interlocutors, that communication overall is more evenly distributed among participants
(e.g., Warschauer et al., 2000), and that they may even use a much wider range of discourse functions than
they do in face-to-face settings with the same material (Kern, 1995).
Chat rooms are easily found on the web through portals like Yahoo, though many are of questionable
suitability for use with language classes. However, here are a number of specialized chat rooms for English
language learners available at sites such as Dave's ESL Cafe (www.eslcafe.com) and EnglishBaby
(www.englishbaby.com), some of which are moderated by an English teacher. It is even possible to get
chat software and set it up in a language lab so that learners in the same room can practice. In this case,
chat can become a confidence builder and allow types of reflection and interaction not possible face to
face. It is worth noting that chat and current instant messaging applications are sometimes labeled "quasisynchronous" in that the presentation of material is not completely instantaneous as it is in speaking on the
phone (the message is not sent until the "Enter" key is hit). MUDs (multi-user domains) or MOOs (multiuser domains, object-oriented) are relatives of chat rooms where pairs or larger groups of individuals can
get together to "converse" through text messages while making reference to a virtual environment in which
the conversation is taking place. Synchronous messaging can also be found on social networking sites,
Google, Yahoo, and many other places on the web.
AUDIO/VIDEO CMC
Asynchronous audio. Like text, audio or video interaction can be either asynchronous or synchronous.
One example of asynchronous voice interaction would be the voicemail services offered by a number of
sites for free. Using this, students with voice-enabled computers can leave messages for one another or for
the teacher. There are several (currently) free sites on the web where you can have audio discussion boards,
such as Voxopop (http://www.voxopop.com/). It is also possible to send audio messages in .wav or some
other common format like mp3s as attachments to emails. An excellent free resource for doing such
recordings is Audacity (http://audacity.sourceforge.net/) for both PCs and Macs.
Asynchronous video. This area has not been as well-developed, due partly to the bandwidth requirements
for using video. While there are many sites for sharing video (most notably www.youtube.com), they are
not really designed for exchanging video messages. However, the potential for language learning is strong,
both because of the psycho-social motivation visual representations can provide and the ability to view
facial expression, gesture and lip shape and synchronization to aid in both comprehension and
pronunciation development. A few services exist that allow for setting up groups, which would be more
appropriate (and private) for teaching purposes. An example is www.dropbox.com.
Synchronous audio/video. Synchronous audio is possible using internet telephony (or just the telephone,
for that matter) for one to one conversation. Skype (http://www.skype.com), a relatively reliable service
that is free when calling computer to computer and inexpensive when calling computer to telephone, has
made this increasingly popular in education circles. Conference call versions of this allow for group
interaction. There are some limitations in quality over regular telephone use, including delays and reduced
voice quality due to the compression requirements. Using a desktop camera, video is also possible: in fact
the latest version of Skype has a video option, as does Yahoo! Messenger. Most recently, Google has been
making a move in this area with its Google hangouts,http://www.google.com/+/learnmore/hangouts/ which
will host up to 10 people at a time in a free videoconference.
CMC IN DISTANCE EDUCATION AND VIRTUAL WORLDS
Distance education is increasing in education generally and language learning is no exception. While
tutorial CALL material can be presented online for independent study without teachers, there are also
classes that are offered to groups of students online with a live teacher's guidance. These classes can be
21
either synchronous or asynchronous, and CMC usually plays an important role. See a commercial version
at www.englishtown.com and an academic-based one at the University of Washington
(http://depts.washington.edu/uwelp/online). TESOL offers certification in online teaching through a series
of online workshops: seehttp://www.tesol.org/attend-and-learn for information. There is a growing body of
literature in this field that relates to CMC, including chapters in the edited volumes by Holmberg et al.
(2005) and Goertler & Winke (2008). Although there are a variety of CMC options such as those above
that can be used individually or combined as platforms for distance education, there are advantages to
integrated systems.
Another expanding area for CMC is the virtual world, like www.secondlife.com. In virtual worlds students
have avatars that can move in a 3D environment and interact with other avatars. Although communication
is most commonly done through text chat, Second Life has added voice chat, increasing the potential value
for language learning. (For more on virtual worlds see Unit 8).
INTEGRATING CMC INTO ESL CLASSES
It is important to recognize that synchronous CMC by definition is real time communication. Learners will
be put on the spot to produce language quickly and one should expect less accuracy (including typos if in a
text mode), but they will arguably be practicing something that overlaps a lot with face to face
communication. Asynchronous CMC allows for more thought and planning, and thus it may be more
reasonable to expect closer attention to organization and language forms.
One of the great advantages of CMC over tutorial CALL is that both teachers and students are usually
familiar with the medium (at least email, and many discussion boards are fairly intuitive), the resources are
often already present or readily available, and the language content is not prewritten but is rather created by
the activities themselves. These features make it much easier to integrate CMC into classes. This does not,
however, imply that CMC activities are always useful or that students will buy into them and interact in
ways we want them to. As with any other CALL activity, a CMC exercise or project should be introduced
thoughtfully, and learners should be given appropriate training not only in the technology but also in the
linking their actions to the language learning objectives of the course.
There has been a tendency for those first engaging in CMC activities with students to note, and in some
cases report, mainly the positive aspects. It is important to realize that the nature of the tasks, the
applications used, and the groupings all can have an impact on the degree of success. As to tasks, Blake
(2000), for example, noted that jigsaw tasks were more effective than information gap tasks in triggering
negotiation of meaning. Thorne (2003) showed that there is a "culture of us" that needs to be considered
with respect to various CMC applications, In one of the three cases he discussed, an American and a
French student who were assigned to communicative transatlantically by email switched to an instant
messaging program instead and ended up conversing for many more hours than expected. Finally, Belz
(2003) investigated small group interactions in collaborative activities, identifying differences between
groups that were successful and those that failed on a tandem project involving US and German students,
For other examples of CMC in action, see Markus Kőtter's article on online
tandems (http://llt.msu.edu/vol7num2/kotter/default.html) and Roseanne Greenfield's article
on collaborative email exchanges (http://llt.msu.edu/vol7num1/greenfield/default.html).
Suggested Activity. Visit a discussion board or chat room at www.eslcafe.com or www.englishbaby.com,
or a similar site where language learners congregate. Try participating in a chat and/or making a posting to
one of the discussion board topics. Examine the language the learners are producing and reflect on your
experience, including an assessment of how you think chat or discussion at such sites could be integrated
into a class you were teaching.
REFERENCES & RESOURCES
Belz, J. (2003). Linguistic perspectives on the development of intercultural competence in
telecollaboration. Language Learning & Technology (2), 68117.http://llt.msu.edu/vol7num2/belz/default.html.
Blake, R. (2000). Computer mediated interaction: A window on L2 Spanish interlanguage. Language
22
Learning & Technology 4 (1), 120-136.
CALL Electronic Journal Online (http://www.tell.is.ritsumei.ac.jp/callejonline/)
Computer Mediated Communication Journal (http://www.december.com/cmc/mag/archive/) Full
version1994-1999: headlines for 2003-2007
Goertler, S. & Winke, P. Opening Doors through Distance Language Education: Principles,
Perspectives, and Practices. San Marcos, TX: CALICO.
Greenfield, R. (2003). Collaborative E-mail exchange for teaching secondary ESL: A case Study in
Hong Kong. Language Learning & Technology 7 (1), 46-70.
Holmberg, , B. Shelley, M. & White, C. (eds). Distance Education and Languages: Evolution and
Change. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual matters.
Kern, R. (1995). Restructuring Classroom Interaction with Networked Computers: Effects on Quantity
and Characteristics of Language Production. Modern Language Journal, 79 (4).
Kőtter, M. (2003). Negotiation of Meaning and Codeswitching in Online Tandems. Language Learning
& Technology 7 (2), 145-172.
Thorne, S. (2003). Artifacts and cultures-of-use in intercultural communication. Language Learning &
Technology 7 (2), 38-67.
Warschauer, Mark, Shetzer, Heidi, and Meloni, Christine (2000). Internet for English Teaching.
Alexandria: TESOL. (see especially Chapter 3)
(8) Course Management Systems (Model) and Wiki-based eportfolios (Practical)
Course Management Systems (CMS)
http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/dec0302.pdf
Course Management Systems (CMS) have become ubiquitous on our campuses and have evolved from
relatively simple HTML based one-way communication tools between faculty and students to
multifunctional, some might say, enterprise level applications.
What is CMS?
At its simplest a course management systems is a tool that allows an instructor to post information on the
web without that instructor having to know or understand HTML or other computer languages. A more
complete definition of a CMS is that it provides an instructor with a set of tools and framework that allows
the relatively easy creation of online course and the subsequently teaching and management of that course
including various interactions with students taking the course.
23
Why use a Course Management System?
Blackboard, WebSpace, Almagest, and Web Appointment Scheduling System, used independently or
in conjunction, can save you valuable classroom time and improve the learning experience for your
students.
Reduce Class Time Spent on Administration
Roster
The Blackboard class roster provides the most current listing of your registered students.
Site Member Photos
View your students' photographs. The web page permits you to sort by groups (precepts, classes,
labs, etc.).
Sectioning
Permit students to indicate section (precepts, classes, labs, etc.) preferences online, and sort them
into groups that contain their e-mail lists, discussion boards, file share, and chat. Course materials
and assessments can be made selectively available to these groups.
E-mail
Keep in contact with your students either through the e-mail function within Blackboard or use your
preferred e-mail client to send to the listserv that Blackboard populates.
Add Users by Role
This tool gives you the power to enroll unofficial course staff in your course site.
Grade Center
Calculate, store, and make students' grades available online in a secure, private environment.
Web Appointment Scheduling System
This online system for scheduling office hours permits instructors, among other options, to create
schedules. Students can also use the system to make and cancel appointments.
Enhance the Learning Process
Syllabus
Post your syllabus online as a living document that you can modify as the semester progresses.
Course Materials
Post your lectures, readings, and study matter online, and have your Ereserves, films, and audio
files put in your site for you.
WebSpace File Management
This system makes collaboration with your colleagues and others outside the Princeton community
much simpler, and does not require a special ID or Blackboard access for outside parties. While
WebSpace can be used completely independently of Blackboard, it can also be used to facilitate
sharing files with members of courses sites. WebSpace can replace your H drive, as well, with more
feature-rich Web-interfaced content management.
Almagest
This powerful course management system makes it easy for you to add images and other digital
media to your courses and to organize them into lectures that can be present in the classroom and
studied online.
Assessments
Create online tests that students can use to practice and prepare for the real thing, or can even be the
real thing. 17 question types are available. You can also use the anonymous survey tool to gather
opinions and evaluate your teaching.
Language Packs
Set your course site to display in one of the available languages, including Arabic, Chinese
(simplified and traditional) Dutch, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, and Spanish.
Voice Tools
Test your students verbal language skills, either asynchronously through voice discussion boards, or
synchronously though live voice chat.
24
WiKi
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A wiki /ˈwɪkiː/ WIK-ee) is a website which allows its users to add, modify, or delete its content via a web
browser usually using a simplified markup language or a rich-text editor.Wikis are powered by wiki
software. Most are created collaboratively.
Wikis serve many different purposes, such as knowledge management and notetaking. Wikis can be
community websites and intranets, for example. Some permit control over different functions (levels of
access). For example, editing rights may permit changing, adding or removing material. Others may permit
access without enforcing access control. Other rules may also be imposed for organizing content.
Ward Cunningham, the developer of the first wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, originally described it as "the
simplest online database that could possibly work.
What is an (electronic portfolio) ePortfolio?
In general, an ePortfolio is a purposeful collection of information and digital artifacts that demonstrates
development or evidences learning outcomes, skills or competencies. The process of producing an
ePortfolio (writing, typing, recording etc.) usually requires the synthesis of ideas, reflection on
achievements, self-awareness and forward planning; with the potential for educational, developmental or
other benefits. Specific types of ePortfolios can be defined in part by their purpose (such as presentation,
application, reflection, assessment and personal development planning), pedagogic design, level of
structure (intrinsic or extrinsic), duration (episodic or life-long) and other factors.
The ePortfolio application
"ePortfolios can be produced using simple tools (such as presentation software or blogs) but more typically
using specialist ePortfolio applications that contain a level of structure (pedagogy and learning
outcomes/skills) with a high level of customisation for specific contexts and support for multiple purposes.
ePortfolio applications allow the owner to share specific parts or views of their portfolio online and support
feedback and dialogue. Ideally ePortfolios are interoperable (for example with learning environments,
recruitment services or for the migration of portfolio data to support continuity in life-long learning)."
Types of e-portfolios
There are three main types of e-portfolios, although they may be referred to using different terms:
 developmental (e.g., working),
 reflective (e.g., learning), and
 representational (e.g., showcase).
A developmental e-portfolio is a record of things that the owner has done over a period of time, and may be directly
tied to learner outcomes or rubrics. A reflective e-portfolio includes personal reflection on the content and what it
means for the owner's development. A representational e-portfolio shows the owner's achievements in relation to
particular work or developmental goals and is, therefore, selective. When it is used for job application it is sometimes
called Career portfolio.
The three main types may be mixed to achieve different learning, personal, or work-related outcomes with the eportfolio owner usually being the person who determines access levels.
(9) Learner training in CALL
Learner Training for Effective Use of CALL
25
By Philip Hubbard - Stanford University
CALL & language learning in general
Computer literacy training
 Provide basic computer skills (computer literacy)
 Things will get better
Training for specific applications
 ’Learners lack of technical competence’ is a major constraint – Jones (2001) p.2

Critical reflection may reduce the anxiety
Learner control issues
 Students – not always good language teachers

Some programs – useless or incorrect advice
Learner strategy training
 Weak relationships between formal training and improvement in proficiency

Culture may limit training
 No longitudinal data
Learner autonomy
 Make teachers lives easier
Why train?
“…there seems to be little literature showing that learner training in the pedagogical uses of CALL software is
taking place.”
 students will profit from some formal, sustained training
 help students make informed decisions about effective use of computer resources to meet learning
objectives
Five principles for CALL Learner Training
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Experience CALL Yourself
Give Learners Teacher Training
Use a Cyclic Approach
Use Collaborative Debriefings
Teach General Exploitation Strategies
Meaning Technologies
Areas for General Training
Features of language learning materials that are based on technology and make the meaning of a language
accessible to the learner
Three areas in which learner training based on these principles:
(1) CMC




Synchronous text
Asynchronous text
Synchronous voice
Asynchronous voice
(2) Interactional Sequences in Tutorial CALL


Task
Negotiation
(3) Authentic materials
1. Familiar content
2. Related content
26
3.
4.
5.
6.
Conceptually simple
Close to one’s actual level (i+1 or i-1?)
Meaning technology support
Mine materials selectively
Tutorial programs


Deliberation – following the computer prompt
Consolidation – following the program’s feedback
Learner Training: Listening Class
 Specific course in academic listening for advanced ESL students
 English, Baby!
www.enlgishbaby.com
 Randall’s Cyber Listening Lab
www.esl-lab.com
 Goal of the activities is to process the language intensively.
Start small and add more as the semester progresses.
 No Testing 
Conclusion





Engage in some form of training
Do action research
Start with one or two useful areas for your class
With research we will reach come closer to a theory of….
“…how best to train learners for more independence in CALL.”
(10) Online assessment
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Online assessment is the process used to measure certain aspects of information for a set purpose where the
assessment is delivered via a computer connected to a network. Most often the assessment is some type of
educational test. Different types of online assessments contain elements of one or more of the following
components, depending on the assessment's purpose: formative, diagnostic, or summative. Instant and
detailed feedback, as well as flexibility of location and time, are just two of the many benefits associated with online
assessments. There are many resources available that provide online assessments, some free of charge and others
that charge fees or require a membership.
Purpose of assessment
Assessments are a vital part of determining student achievement. They are used to determine the knowledge gained
by students and to determine if adjustments need to be made to either the teaching or learning process.
Types of online assessments
27
Online assessment is used primarily to measure cognitive abilities, demonstrating what has been learned after a
particular educational event has occurred, such as the end of an instructional unit or chapter. When assessing
practical abilities or to demonstrate learning that has occurred over a longer period of time an online portfolio
(or ePortfolio) is often used. The first element that must be prepared when teaching an online course is assessment.
Assessment is used to determine if learning is happening, to what extent and if changes need to be made. [2]
Independent Work
Independent work is work that a students prepares to assist the instructor in determining their learning progress.
Some examples are: exercises, papers, portfolios, and exams (multiple choice, true false, short answer, fill in the
blank, open ended/essay or matching). To truly evaluate, an instructor must use multiple methods.
Most students will not complete assignments unless there is an assessment (i.e. motivation). It is the instructors role
to catalyze student motivation. Appropriate feedback is the key to assessment, whether or not the assessment is
graded.[3]
Group Work
Students are often asked to work in groups. With this brings on new assessment strategies. Students can be
evaluated using a collaborative learning model in which the learning is driven by the students and/or a cooperative
learning model where tasks are assigned and the instructor is involved in decisions. [4]
Uses of online assessments
Pre-Testing - Prior to the teaching of a lesson or concept, a student can complete an online pretest to determine their
level of knowledge. This form of assessment helps determine a baseline so that when a summative assessment or
post-test is given, quantitative evidence is provided showing that learning has occurred.
Formative Assessment - Formative assessment is used to provide feedback during the learning process. In online
assessment situations, objective questions are posed, and feedback is provided to the student either during or
immediately after the assessment.
Summative Assessment - Summative assessments provide a quantitative grade and are often given at the end of a
unit or lesson to determine that the learning objectives have been met.
Practice Testing - With the ever-increasing use of high-stakes testing in the educational arena, online practice tests
are used to give students an edge. Students can take these types of assessments multiple times to familiarize
themselves with the content and format of the assessment.
Surveys - Online surveys may be used by educators to collect data and feedback on student attitudes, perceptions
or other types of information that might help improve the instruction.
Evaluations - This type of survey allows facilitators to collect data and feedback on any type of situation where the
course or experience needs justification or improvement.
Performance Testing - The user shows what they know and what they can do. This type of testing is used to show
technological proficiency, reading comprehension, math skills, etc. This assessment is also used to identify gaps in
student learning.
New technologies, such as the Web, digital video, sound, animations, and interactivity, are providing tools that can
make assessment design and implementation more efficient, timely, and sophisticated.
Academic Dishonesty
Academic dishonesty, commonly known as cheating, occurs in all levels of educational institutions. In traditional
classrooms, students cheat in various forms such as hidden prepared notes not permitted to be used or looking at
another student’s paper during an exam, copying homework from one another, or copying from a book, article or
media without properly citing the source. Individuals can be dishonest due to lack of time management skills, pursuit
for better grades, cultural behavior or a misunderstanding of plagiarism. [5]
Online classroom environments are no exception to the possibility of academic dishonesty. It can easily be seen
from a student’s perspective as an easy passing grade. Proper assignments types, meetings and projects can
prevent academic dishonesty in the online classroom.[6]
Types of Academic Dishonesty
Two common types of academic dishonesty are identity fraud and plagiarism.
28
Identity fraud can occur in the traditional or online classroom. There is a higher chance in online classes due to the
lack of proctored exams or instructor-student interaction. In a traditional classroom, instructors have the opportunity
to get to know the students, learn their writing styles or use proctored exams. To prevent identity fraud in an online
class, instructors can use proctored exams through the institutions testing center or require students to come in at a
certain time for the exam. Correspondence through the phone or video conferencing techniques can allow an
instructor to become familiar with a student through their voice and appearance. Another option would be
personalize assignments to students' backgrounds or current activities. This allows the student to apply it to their
personal life and gives the instructor more assurance the actual student is completing the assignment. Lastly, an
instructor may not make the assignments heavily weighted so the students do not feel as pressured. [7]
Plagiarism is the misrepresentation of another person’s work. It is easy to copy and paste from the internet or retype
directly from a source. It is not only the exact wordage, but the thought or idea. [8] It is important to learn to properly
cite a source when using someone else’s work.
Various websites are available to check for plagiarism for a fee.[9]
www.canexus.com, www.catchitfirst.com, www.ithenticate.com, www.mydropbox.com, www.turnitin.com
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
^ Rovai, Alfred; Ponton, Michael; Baker, Jason (2008). Distance Learning in Higher Education: A programmatic Approach to
Planning, Design, Instruction, Evaluation, and Accreditation. Teachers College Press. pp. 80–82. ISBN 978-0-8077-4878-7.
^ Rovai, Alfred; Ponton, Michael; Baker, Jason (2008). Distance Learning in Higher Education: A programmatic Approach to
Planning, Design, Instruction, Evaluation, and Accreditation. Teachers College Press. pp. 79. ISBN 978-0-8077-4878-7.
^ Rovai, Alfred; Ponton, Michael; Baker, Jason (2008). Distance Learning in Higher Education: A programmatic Approach to
Planning, Design, Instruction, Evaluation, and Accreditation. Teachers College Press. pp. 83–86. ISBN 978-0-8077-4878-7.
^ Rovai, Alfred; Ponton, Michael; Baker, Jason (2008). Distance Learning in Higher Education: A programmatic Approach to
Planning, Design, Instruction, Evaluation, and Accreditation. Teachers College Press. pp. 86–89. ISBN 978-0-8077-4878-7.
^ Rovai, Alfred; Ponton, Michael; Baker, Jason (2008). Distance Learning in Higher Education: A programmatic Approach to
Planning, Design, Instruction, Evaluation, and Accreditation. Teachers College Press. p. 89. ISBN 978-0-8077-4878-7.
^ Rovai, Alfred; Ponton, Michael; Baker, Jason (2008). Distance Learning in Higher Education: A programmatic Approach to
Planning, Design, Instruction, Evaluation, and Accreditation. Teachers College Press. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-0-8077-4878-7.
^ Rovai, Alfred; Ponton, Michael; Baker, Jason (2008). Distance Learning in Higher Education: A programmatic Approach to
Planning, Design, Instruction, Evaluation, and Accreditation. Teachers College Press. pp. 89–90. ISBN 978-0-8077-4878-7.
^ Rovai, Alfred; Ponton, Michael; Baker, Jason (2008). Distance Learning in Higher Education: A programmatic Approach to
Planning, Design, Instruction, Evaluation, and Accreditation. Teachers College Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-8077-4878-7.
^ Rovai, Alfred; Ponton, Michael; Baker, Jason (2008). Distance Learning in Higher Education: A programmatic Approach to
Planning, Design, Instruction, Evaluation, and Accreditation. Teachers College Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-8077-4878-7.
29