An Introduction to U.S.
Higher Education—
Past, Present, and Future
Topics
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History
Types of Colleges and Universities
Governance of Colleges and Universities
The Future of Higher Education
HISTORY
c. 975: Al-Azhar University, Cairo
c. 1076: University of Bologna
c. 1117: Oxford University
1170: University of Paris
1209-28: Cambridge University
1385: University of Heidelberg
(first German university)
1636: Harvard University
(first American university)
Harvard, 1828
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Harvard: founded 1636, Puritan
William and Mary: 1693, Anglican
Yale: 1701, Congregational (Puritan)
Pennsylvania : 1740, nonsectarian (Anglican)
Princeton: 1746, nonsectarian (Presbyterian)
Columbia: 1754, Anglican
Brown: 1764, Baptist
Rutgers: 1766, Dutch Reformed
Dartmouth: 1769, Congregational (Puritan)
Early Public
Colleges and Universities
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North Carolina, 1789/1795
Georgia, 1785/1799
Vermont, 1791
Virginia, 1800/1819
Ohio, 1804
Michigan, 1817
Indiana, 1820
“our liberty can never be safe but in the hands of
the people themselves, and that, too, of the people
with a certain degree of instruction. This is the
business of the state to effect, and on a general
plan.”
--Thomas Jefferson, 1786
“this institution [the University of Virginia] will be
based on the illimitable freedom of the human
mind. for here we are not afraid to follow truth
wherever it may lead, nor to tolerate any error so
long as reason is left free to combat it.”
--Thomas Jefferson, 1820
The Land-Grant College Act
(Morrill Act), 1862
“without excluding other scientific and classical
studies and including military tactic, to teach
such branches of learning as are related to
agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such
manner as the legislatures of the States may
respectively prescribe, in order to promote the
liberal and practical education of the industrial
classes in the several pursuits and professions in
life.”
The Land-Grant College Act
(Morrill Act), 1862
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Kansas State University, 1862
Iowa State University, 1858/1864
Rutgers University, 1766/1864
Michigan State University, 1855/1862
University of California, 1855/1868
Connecticut, 1881
Hawaii, 1907
District of Columbia, 1967 (cash, not land)
“Old Main,” Iowa State University,
1864-68
Black Colleges and Universities
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Reconstruction, 1864-1877
Fisk University, 1866
Howard University, 1867
Alcorn State University, Mississippi, the first
state-supported higher education institution
for African Americans, 1871
1890 Morrill Act
Higher Education Act of 1965: 110
Historically Black Colleges and Universities
Women and Higher Education
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Separate women's colleges: Wesleyan
College (Georgia), 1836/1839
Oberlin the first coeducational college,
1837; Antioch the second, 1852
1879: almost 1/2 of all colleges were
coeducational, especially the new state
universities created by the Morrill Act
College Graduates (baccalaureate or first
professional degree), 1870-1920
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
Men
Women
1918
1915
1912
1909
1906
1903
1900
1897
1894
1891
1888
1885
1882
1879
1876
1873
1870
0
Curricular Innovations
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Ph.D. (research) degrees: Yale the first,
1861; spread slowly
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1861
Morrill Act, 1862: Engineering, agriculture,
military officer training
Wharton School (Business), 1881
Teachers College: Columbia University
among the first, 1887/1892
Majors and electives widespread by late 19th
century
From Normal Schools to
Teachers’ Colleges and Beyond
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Concord, Vermont, 1823 (first private)
Lexington, Massachusetts, 1839 (first public)
Michigan State Normal School (now Eastern
Michigan University), 1853
Minns Evening Normal School, 1857 (California
State Normal School, 1862; moved to San José,
1871; now San José State University)
Los Angeles branch of the California State
Normal School, 1881 (now UCLA)
San Francisco State Normal School, 1899 (now
San Francisco State University)
Manual Training Class, San Jose State Normal School, 1892
Community Colleges
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First established in Joliet, Illinois, 1901, as an
extension of the local high school
Vocational emphasis in 1920s and 1930s
Also developed as transfer institutions, providing
the first two years of a baccalaureate education
Rapid growth in 1960s
Technical training emphasis in 1980s
Typically practice open admission; 42% of
entering public community college students must
take remedial courses
Higher Education Systems
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California (Master Plan, 1960): University of
California (9), California State University
(23), California Community Colleges (109)
Florida: State University System (11),
Community Colleges System (28)
New York: State University of New York,
1948 (64), City University of New York, 1961
(21)
Texas: Uni. of Texas (15), Texas A&M (12),
Texas State (4), Uni. of Houston (4), Texas
Tech (3)
Types of Colleges
and Universities
Carnegie Classification for
Colleges and Universities
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Research/doctoral universities:
Master’s degree granting:
Baccalaureate degree granting:
Associate degree granting:
Special purpose:
Tribal colleges:
285
665
766
1,705
806
32
Colleges and Universities by
Funding Source
 Public
 Private,
non-affiliated
 Private, church-related
 Proprietary
Examples of Colleges and
Universities in the SF Bay Area
Public
Private,
non-affil.
UC
Berkeley
Stanford,
Golden
Gate U.
USF
Special
Purpose
UCSF
Menlo
Grad.
Theo.Union
Master’s
SF State,
CSU EB
Mills
Santa Clara
Baccalaureate
Cal.
Maritime
Associate
CCSF
Research/
Doctoral
Private,
Proprietary
Church-rel.
Dominican
Phoenix,
Acad. Art
Examples of Public Institutions
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UC Berkeley (doctoral/research):
 23,863 undergrad., 10,070 grad. & prof. students
 108 bacc. degree programs, 64 masters, 96 doctoral,
32 professional
 undergraduate fees: $8,383/yr. for full-time enrollment
SF State (masters/comprehensive):
 23,843 undergraduates, 5,785 graduate students
 109 bacc. degree programs, 85 masters, 5 doctoral
 undergraduate fees: $3,486/yr. for full-time enrollment
City College of San Francisco (associates):
 93,877 students, 29,211 credit FTES
 30 degree or certificate programs
 fees: $20 per unit, approx. $600/yr. for full-time
enrollment
Largest Undergraduate
Degree Programs
SAN FRANCISCO STATE
 Business Administration
 Psychology
 Biology
 English
 Cinema
 Art
 Radio & Television
 Engineering
 Liberal Studies
 Journalism
UC DAVIS
 Psychology
 Biological Sciences
 Economics
 Managerial Economics
 Political Science
 Communications
 Biochem and Molecular
Biology
 Sociology
 English
 International Relations
Community Colleges Programs
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Provide courses for transfer to a baccalaureategranting institution
Workforce training -
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Police, firefighters, nurses
Aeronautical and automotive mechanics
Culinary arts – chefs, bakers, etc.
Medical and dental assistants and technicians
Machinery maintenance
Adult education
Personal enrichment
Governance of
Colleges and
Universities
Accreditation
Internal Governance
Accreditation -- self-regulation of
academic quality through accreditation
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Middle States Association of Colleges and
Schools
New England Association of Schools and
Colleges
North Central Association of Colleges and
Schools
Northwest Commission on Colleges and
Universities
Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Western Association of Schools and Colleges
WASC
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Accrediting Commission for Senior
Colleges and Universities (151 institutions
in California, Hawai'i, and the Pacific)
Accrediting Commission for Community
and Junior Colleges (140 institutions)
Accrediting Commission for Schools
(3,800+ K-12 and occupational schools)
College and University
Internal Governance
Governing Boards
Administrators
Academic Senates
Legal Authority
Governing Board
(Directors, Regents, Trustees)
Chief Executive Officer
(Chancellor, President)
Chief Academic Officer
(Academic
Vice-president/chancellor,
Provost)
Academic Administrators
(Associate Vice-presidents,
Deans, Directors)
Other Vicepresidents/chancellors
(finance,
administration,
development,
student services)
University Governance
 Joint
Decision-making
 Collegial Decision-making
Academic Governance
in the United States
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1889: first academic senate in the U.S.
established at Cornell University
1915: American Association of University
Professors organized to define and protect
academic freedom
1966: Statement on Government of Colleges
and Universities (AAUP, with recognition by
the American Council on Education and the
Association of Governing Boards of
Universities and Colleges)
Areas Subject to
Joint Decision-Making
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The Curriculum: Courses and Degree Programs
Academic Policies
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General education requirements
Grading practices and standards
Academic planning
Admissions criteria and procedures
Campus policies that govern the library and research
facilities
The academic calendar
Hiring, Retention, Tenure, and Promotion of Faculty
Members
Searches for Administrators
Budget Planning, Facilities Planning
Governance at SFSU:
The Academic Senate
55 members elected by and from the voting members of the
faculty; elected senators serve three-year terms:
 42 Senators elected from each College, the Library, and
Student Services, including at least one lecturer from each unit.
 10 Senators elected at large.
 3 members of the Academic Senate CSU elected at large.
10 appointed or ex officio members:
 The President of the University.
 The Provost.
 4 Senators appointed annually by the University President.
 3 Senators chosen by the Associated Students.
 1 Senator chosen by the staff.
How Proposals Move Through the Academic Senate
Proposal Originates:
Individual faculty member
Departmental committee
Special Taskforce
All-University Standing Committee
President, Provost, other
Administrator
Senate Standing Committee
Senate Executive Committee
Other Members of the University Community
How Proposals Move Through the Academic Senate
Proposal Originates: the university community.
Executive Committee of the Senate
Ex. Com. declines
to take action,
proposal dies.
How Proposals Move Through the Academic Senate
Proposal Originates: the university community.
Executive Committee of the Senate
Senate Standing Policy Committee:
Academic Policies Committee
Curriculum Review and Approval Com.
Faculty Affairs Committee
Student Affairs Committee
Ex. Com. declines
to take action,
proposal dies.
Committee declines
to take action,
proposal dies.
How Proposals Move Through the Academic Senate
Proposal Originates: the university community.
Executive Committee of the Senate
Senate Standing Policy Committee
Academic Senate
Ex. Com. declines
to take action,
proposal dies.
Committee declines
to take action,
proposal dies.
Senate
defeats
proposal.
How Proposals Move Through the Academic Senate
Proposal Originates: the university community.
Executive Committee of the Senate
Senate committee
Senate
President
Ex. Com. declines
to take action,
proposal dies.
Committee declines
to take action,
proposal dies.
Senate
defeats
proposal.
How Proposals Move Through the Academic Senate
Proposal Originates: the university community.
Executive Committee of the Senate
Senate committee
Senate
President approves proposal.
Proposal becomes University
policy.
President
President modifies proposal and Senate
refuses to accept changes.
Proposal becomes executive policy.
Ex. Com. declines
to take action,
proposal dies.
Committee declines
to take action,
proposal dies.
Senate
defeats
proposal.
President declines to approve.
Proposal dies.
University Decision-Making
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Often complex, involving several layers of
decision-making and considerable time
Bold presidential initiatives may well
generate strong faculty opposition
Collective Bargaining and
Academic Governance
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Where collective bargaining exists and where the
faculty have voted to unionize -Terms and conditions of employment (salaries,
benefits) are usually determined through collective
bargaining;
Criteria and standards for personnel actions are
usually determined through academic governance;
and
Curriculum and related academic policies are
determined through academic governance.
Other Groups
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Students – usually have their own
governance structure, may have formal
responsibility for certain fees and facilities,
may be represented on the governing board
Alumni -- usually have their own
organization, may be organized through
University Development, may be
represented on the governing board
Staff – may be unionized, may have their
own organization
Does it work?
I think you should be more
explicit here in step two.
The Future of Higher
Education
Guessing about the Future of
Higher Education
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Continued resource constraints for public
universities, both research (UC) and
comprehensive (CSU)
Increasing reliance on transfers from
community colleges for first two years of
undergraduate study
 Increasing emphasis on private fund-raising
by public universities
 Continuing increases in student fees
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Vielen
Dank