LCA :
LIFE CYCLE
ANALYSIS
Diabstraksikan oleh: Nunuk L.H., N. Akhmad, E. Sunaryono, dan Soemarno
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE AANALYSIS
Analisis Siklus Hidup.
ANALISIS DAUR HIDUP
LCA merupakan suatu metode analisis lingkungan dan dampak lingkungan yang
berhubungan dengan suatu produk, proses, atau jasa; dengan jalan melakukan
inventori input enerji dan material, serta limbahnya yang dibuang ke lingkungan;
analisis dampak lingkungan dari input dan limbah, serta interpretasi hasil-hasilnya
untuk digunakan dalam pengambilan keputusan.
Ketersediaan perangkat lunak (software) mempermudah pelaksanaan LCA yang
membutuhkan basis data yang besar.
Life Cycle Asessment merupakan satu pendekatan “Cradle to Grave” dimulai dari pengambilan
bahan mentah dari lingkungan untuk membuat produk dan berakhir pada pembuangan limbah
ke lingkungan.
Esensi dari Life Cycle Assessment adalah evaluasi dampak teknologi, ekonomi dan lingkungan,
yang relevan dengan bahan mentah (material), proses dan/atau produk, sepanjang siklus hidup
mulai dari pembuatannya hingga menjadi limbah.
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
A life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis,
ecobalance, and cradle-to-grave analysis) is a technique to assess
environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life
from-cradle-to-grave (i.e., from raw material extraction through
materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and
maintenance, and disposal or recycling).
LCAs can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by:
1. Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental
releases;
2. Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs and releases;
3. Interpreting the results to help make a more informed decision.
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
GOALS AND PURPOSE
The goal of LCA is to compare the full range of environmental effects assignable to products and services in
order to improve processes, support policy and provide a sound basis for informed decisions.
The term life cycle refers to the notion that a fair, holistic assessment requires the assessment of rawmaterial production, manufacture, distribution, use and disposal including all intervening transportation
steps necessary or caused by the product's existence.
There are two main types of LCA.
Attributional LCAs seek to establish the burdens associated with the production and use of a product, or
with a specific service or process, at a point in time (typically the recent past).
Consequential LCAs seek to identify the environmental consequences of a decision or a proposed change in
a system under study (oriented to the future), which means that market and economic implications of a
decision may have to be taken into account.
Social LCA is a different approach to life cycle thinking intended to assess social implications or potential
impacts. Social LCA should be considered as an approach that is complementary to environmental LCA.
The procedures of life cycle assessment (LCA) are part of the ISO 14000 environmental management
standards: in ISO 14040:2006 and 14044:2006. (ISO 14044 replaced earlier versions of ISO 14041 to ISO
14043.)
1. Thomas,J.A.G., ed: Energy Analysis, ipc science and technology press & Westview Press,
1977, ISBN 0-902852-60-4 or ISBN 0-89158-813-2
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Empat tahapan Utama
According to the ISO 14040[4] and 14044[5] standards, a Life Cycle Assessment is carried out in four distinct
phases as illustrated in the figure shown to the right. The phases are often interdependent in that the results
of one phase will inform how other phases are completed.
DEFINISI TUJUAN & LINGKUP
ANALISIS
INVENTORY
INTERPRETASI
PENDUGAAN DAMPAK
4. ISO 14040 (2006): Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Principles and framework, International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO), Geneve
5. ISO 14044 (2006): Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Requirements and guidelines, International Organisation for
Standardisation (ISO), Geneve
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Goal and scope
An LCA starts with an explicit statement of the goal and scope of the study, which sets out the
context of the study and explains how and to whom the results are to be communicated. This is
a key step and the ISO standards require that the goal and scope of an LCA be clearly defined
and consistent with the intended application. The goal and scope document therefore includes
technical details that guide subsequent work:
1. The functional unit, which defines what precisely is being studied and quantifies the service
delivered by the product system, providing a reference to which the inputs and outputs can
be related. Further, the functional unit is an important basis that enables alternative goods,
or services, to be compared and analyzed.[6]
2. The system boundaries;
3. Any assumptions and limitations;
4. The allocation methods used to partition the environmental load of a process when several
products or functions share the same process; and
5. The impact categories chosen.
6.
Rebitzer, G. et al. (2004). Life cycle assessment Part 1: Framework, goal and scope definition, inventory analysis,and applications.
Environment International. 30(2004), 701-720.
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Life cycle inventory
Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to nature for a
product system. Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw materials, and releases
to air, land, and water. To develop the inventory, a flow model of the technical system is
constructed using data on inputs and outputs.
The flow model is typically illustrated with a flow chart that includes the activities that are going
to be assessed in the relevant supply chain and gives a clear picture of the technical system
boundaries. The input and output data needed for the construction of the model are collected
for all activities within the system boundary, including from the supply chain (referred to as
inputs from the techno-sphere).
The data must be related to the functional unit defined in the goal and scope definition. Data
can be presented in tables and some interpretations can be made already at this stage. The
results of the inventory is an LCI which provides information about all inputs and outputs in the
form of elementary flow to and from the environment from all the unit processes involved in
the study.
7. Steinbach, V. and Wellmer, F. (May 2010). “Review: Consumption and Use of Non-Renewable Mineral and Energy Raw
Materials from an Economic Geology Point of View.” Sustainability. 2(5), pgs. 1408-1430. Retrieved from
<http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/5/1408
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Life cycle inventory
Inventory flows can number in the hundreds depending on the system
boundary. For product LCAs at either the generic (i.e., representative
industry averages) or brand-specific level, that data is typically
collected through survey questionnaires.
At an industry level, care has to be taken to ensure that questionnaires
are completed by a representative sample of producers, leaning
toward neither the best nor the worst, and fully representing any
regional differences due to energy use, material sourcing or other
factors.
The questionnaires cover the full range of inputs and outputs, typically
aiming to account for 99% of the mass of a product, 99% of the energy
used in its production and any environmentally sensitive flows, even if
they fall within the 1% level of inputs.
7. Steinbach, V. and Wellmer, F. (May 2010). “Review: Consumption and Use of Non-Renewable Mineral and Energy Raw Materials from an
Economic Geology Point of View.” Sustainability. 2(5), pgs. 1408-1430. Retrieved from <http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/5/1408
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Life cycle inventory
One area where data access is likely to be difficult is flows from the techno-sphere.
The technosphere is more simply defined as the man-made world. Considered by
geologists as secondary resources, these resources are in theory 100% recyclable;
however, in a practical sense the primary goal is salvage. [7]
For an LCI, these technosphere products (supply chain products) are those that have
been produced by man and unfortunately those completing a questionnaire about a
process which uses man-made product as a means to an end will be able to specify
how much of a given input they use.
Typically, they will not have access to data concerning inputs and outputs for
previous production processes of the product. The entity undertaking the LCA must
then turn to secondary sources if it does not already have that data from its own
previous studies. National databases or data sets that come with LCA-practitioner
tools, or that can be readily accessed, are the usual sources for that information.
Care must then be taken to ensure that the secondary data source properly reflects
regional or national conditions.
7. Steinbach, V. and Wellmer, F. (May 2010). “Review: Consumption and Use of Non-Renewable Mineral and Energy Raw Materials from an
Economic Geology Point of View.” Sustainability. 2(5), pgs. 1408-1430. Retrieved from <http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/5/1408
Diunduh dari:
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LCIA =
LIFE-CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Inventory analysis is followed by impact assessment. This phase of LCA is aimed at evaluating the significance
of potential environmental impacts based on the LCI flow results. Classical life cycle impact assessment
(LCIA) consists of the following mandatory elements:
selection of impact categories, category indicators, and characterization models;
the classification stage, where the inventory parameters are sorted and assigned to specific impact
categories; and
impact measurement, where the categorized LCI flows are characterized, using one of many possible LCIA
methodologies, into common equivalence units that are then summed to provide an overall impact category
total.
In many LCAs, characterization concludes the LCIA analysis; this is also the last compulsory stage according to
ISO 14044:2006. However, in addition to the above mandatory LCIA steps, other optional LCIA elements –
normalization, grouping, and weighting – may be conducted depending on the goal and scope of the LCA
study. In normalization, the results of the impact categories from the study are usually compared with the
total impacts in the region of interest, the U.S. for example. Grouping consists of sorting and possibly ranking
the impact categories. During weighting, the different environmental impacts are weighted relative to each
other so that they can then be summed to get a single number for the total environmental impact.
ISO 14044:2006 generally advises against weighting, stating that “weighting, shall not be used in LCA studies
intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public”. This advice is often
ignored, resulting in comparisons that can reflect a high degree of subjectivity as a result of weighting.
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Interpretation
Life Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate information from
the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact assessment. The results from the inventory
analysis and impact assessment are summarized during the interpretation phase.
The outcome of the interpretation phase is a set of conclusions and recommendations for the study.
According to ISO 14040:2006, the interpretation should include:
1. Identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of an LCA;
2. Evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks; and
3. Conclusions, limitations and recommendations.
A key purpose of performing life cycle interpretation is to determine the level of confidence in the final
results and communicate them in a fair, complete, and accurate manner. Interpreting the results of an LCA is
not as simple as "3 is better than 2, therefore Alternative A is the best choice"!
Interpreting the results of an LCA starts with understanding the accuracy of the results, and ensuring they
meet the goal of the study. This is accomplished by identifying the data elements that contribute significantly
to each impact category, evaluating the sensitivity of these significant data elements, assessing the
completeness and consistency of the study, and drawing conclusions and recommendations based on a clear
understanding of how the LCA was conducted and the results were developed.
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Reference test
More specifically, the best alternative is the one that the LCA shows to have the least
cradle-to-grave environmental negative impact on land, sea, and air resources.[8]
8. Curran, Mary Ann. "Life Cycle Analysis: Priciples and Practice". Scientific Applications
International Corporation. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
LCA estimates the impacts
or costs of resources
associated with a project
from ‘cradle to grave’ –
including extraction,
processing, use, and
disposal.
The technique is often
used to compare options
for a project, informing a
selection that is less
environmentally
damaging.
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
LCA uses
Based on a survey of LCA practitioners carried out in 2006[9] LCA is mostly used to support business strategy
(18%) and R&D (18%), as input to product or process design (15%), in education (13%) and for labeling or
product declarations (11%). LCA will be continuously integrated into the built environment as tools such as
the European ENSLIC Building project guidelines for buildings or developed and implemented, which provide
practitioners guidance on methods to implement LCI data into the planning and design process. [10]
Major corporations all over the world are either undertaking LCA in house or commissioning studies, while
governments support the development of national databases to support LCA. Of particular note is the
growing use of LCA for ISO Type III labels called Environmental Product Declarations, defined as "quantified
environmental data for a product with pre-set categories of parameters based on the ISO 14040 series of
standards, but not excluding additional environmental information".[11][12] These third-party certified LCAbased labels provide an increasingly important basis for assessing the relative environmental merits of
competing products. Third-party certification plays a major role in today's industry. Independent certification
can show a company's dedication to safer and environmental friendlier products to customers and NGOs.[13]
LCA also has major roles in environmental impact assessment, integrated waste management and pollution
studies.
9. Cooper, J.S.; Fava, J. (2006). "Life Cycle Assessment Practitioner Survey: Summary of Results". Journal of Industrial Ecology.
10. Malmqvist, T; Glaumann, M; Scarpellini, S; Zabalza, I; Aranda, A (April 2011). "Life cycle assessment in buildings: The ENSLIC simplified
method and guidelines". Energy 36 (4): 1900-1907. Retrieved October 31, 2012.
11. S. Singh, B. R. Bakshi (2009). "Eco-LCA: A Tool for Quantifying the Role of Ecological Resources in LCA". International Symposium on
Sustainable Systems and Technology: 1–6. doi:10.1109/ISSST.2009.5156770. ISBN 978-1-4244-4324-6.
12. EPD_System – www.thegreenstandard.org
13. LCA by Independent Third Parties
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Data analysis
A life cycle analysis is only as valid as its data; therefore, it is crucial that data used for the completion of a
life cycle analysis are accurate and current. When comparing different life cycle analyses with one another, it
is crucial that equivalent data are available for both products or processes in question. If one product has a
much higher availability of data, it cannot be justly compared to another product which has less detailed
data.[14]
There are two basic types of LCA data – unit process data and environmental input-output data (EIO), where
the latter is based on national economic input-output data.[15] Unit process data are derived from direct
surveys of companies or plants producing the product of interest, carried out at a unit process level defined
by the system boundaries for the study.
Data validity is an ongoing concern for life cycle analyses. Due to globalization and the rapid pace of research
and development, new materials and manufacturing methods are continually being introduced to the
market. This makes it both very important and very difficult to use up-to-date information when performing
an LCA. If an LCA’s conclusions are to be valid, the data must be recent; however, the data-gathering process
takes time. If a product and its related processes have not undergone significant revisions since the last LCA
data was collected, data validity is not a problem. However, consumer electronics such as cell phones can be
redesigned as often as every 9 to 12 months,[16] creating a need for ongoing data collection.
14. Scientific Applications International Corporation (May). "Life cycle assessment: principles and practice". p. 88.
15. "How Does GREET Work?". Argonne National Laboratory. 2010-09-03. Retrieved 2011-02-28.
16. Choney, Suzanne (24 February 2009). "Planned obsolescence: cell phone models". MSNBC. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Data analysis
The life cycle considered usually consists of a number of stages including: materials
extraction, processing and manufacturing, product use, and product disposal. If the
most environmentally harmful of these stages can be determined, then impact on the
environment can be efficiently reduced by focusing on making changes for that
particular phase.
For example, the most energy-intensive life phase of an airplane or car is during use
due to fuel consumption. One of the most effective ways to increase fuel efficiency is
to decrease vehicle weight, and thus, car and airplane manufacturers can decrease
environmental impact in a significant way by replacing aluminum with lighter materials
such as carbon fiber reinforced fibers. The reduction during the use phase should be
more than enough to balance additional raw material or manufacturing cost.
14.Scientific Applications International Corporation (May). "Life cycle assessment: principles and practice". p. 88.
15."How Does GREET Work?". Argonne National Laboratory. 2010-09-03. Retrieved 2011-02-28.
16.Choney, Suzanne (24 February 2009). "Planned obsolescence: cell phone models". MSNBC. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Economic input–output life cycle assessment
Economic input–output LCA (EIOLCA) involves use of aggregate sector-level data on
how much environmental impact can be attributed to each sector of the economy and
how much each sector purchases from other sectors.[24]
Such analysis can account for long chains (for example, building an automobile
requires energy, but producing energy requires vehicles, and building those vehicles
requires energy, etc.), which somewhat alleviates the scoping problem of process LCA;
however, EIOLCA relies on sector-level averages that may or may not be representative
of the specific subset of the sector relevant to a particular product and therefore is not
suitable for evaluating the environmental impacts of products. Additionally the
translation of economic quantities into environmental impacts is not validated.[25]
24. Hendrickson, C. T., Lave, L. B., and Matthews, H. S. (2005). Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods
and Services: An Input–Output Approach, Resources for the Future Press ISBN 1-933115-24-6.
25. Limitations of the EIO-LCA Method and Models
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Ecologically based LCA
While a conventional LCA uses many of the same approaches and strategies as an EcoLCA, the latter considers a much broader range of ecological impacts. It was designed
to provide a guide to wise management of human activities by understanding the
direct and indirect impacts on ecological resources and surrounding ecosystems.
Eco-LCA is developed by Ohio State University Center for resilience, a methodology
that quantitatively takes into account regulating and supporting services during the life
cycle of economic goods and products. In this approach services are categorized in
four main groups: supporting, regulating provisioning and cultural services.[11]
11.
S. Singh, B. R. Bakshi (2009). "Eco-LCA: A Tool for Quantifying the
Role of Ecological Resources in LCA". International Symposium on
Sustainable Systems and Technology: 1–6.
doi:10.1109/ISSST.2009.5156770. ISBN 978-1-4244-4324-6.
Diunduh dari:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
LCEA = Life cycle energy analysis
Life cycle energy analysis (LCEA) is an approach in which all energy inputs to a product are accounted for, not
only direct energy inputs during manufacture, but also all energy inputs needed to produce components,
materials and services needed for the manufacturing process.
An earlier term for the approach was energy analysis.
With LCEA, the total life cycle energy input is established.
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Life Cycle Energy Assessment
(LCEA) of Building
Construction
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment……. 5/1/2013
Life Cycle Energy Assessment (LCEA) of
building construction covers a range of the
issues relevant to sustainable building
development. LCEA includes the entire life
cycle of the product, process or activity,
encompassing extracting and processing
materials; manufacturing, transportation
and distribution; use, reuse, maintenance;
recycling and final disposal. Promoting LCEA
of buildings would arouse attention to
environmentally friendly building designs,
including energy efficient building design
and selection of materials and construction
methods that would incur lower impacts on
the global, local and indoor environments,
which will also help minimise construction
and demolition waste.
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Energy production
It is recognized that much energy is lost in the production of energy commodities themselves, such as
nuclear energy, photovoltaic electricity or high-quality petroleum products. Net energy content is the energy
content of the product minus energy input used during extraction and conversion, directly or indirectly. A
controversial early result of LCEA claimed that manufacturing solar cells requires more energy than can be
recovered in using the solar cell.
The result was refuted.[26] Another new concept that flows from life cycle assessments is Energy
Cannibalism. Energy Cannibalism refers to an effect where rapid growth of an entire energy-intensive
industry creates a need for energy that uses (or cannibalizes) the energy of existing power plants. Thus
during rapid growth the industry as a whole produces no energy because new energy is used to fuel the
embodied energy of future power plants. Work has been undertaken in the UK to determine the life cycle
energy (alongside full LCA) impacts of a number of renewable technologies.[27][28]
26. David MacKay Sustainable Energy 24 February 2010 p. 41
27. McManus, M (2010). "Life cycle impacts of waste wood biomass heating systems: A case study of three UK based systems". Energy 35 (10):
4064–4070. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2010.06.014.
28. Allen, S.R., G.P. Hammond, H. Harajli, C.I. Jones, M.C. McManus and A.B. Winnett (2008). Integrated appraisal of micro-generators:
methods and applications. 161. pp. 73–86. doi:10.1680/ener.2008.1+61.2.73
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
ENERGY RECOVERY
If materials are incinerated during the disposal process, the energy released during
burning can be harnessed and used for electricity production. This provides a lowimpact energy source, especially when compared with coal and natural gas[29] While
incineration produces more greenhouse gas emissions than landfilling, the waste
plants are well-fitted with filters to minimize this negative impact.
A recent study comparing energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from
landfilling (without energy recovery) against incineration (with energy recovery) found
incineration to be superior in all cases except for when landfill gas is recovered for
electricity production.[30]
29. Damgaard, A, et. al. Life-cycle-assessment of the historical development of air pollution control and
energy recovery in waste incineration. Waste Management 30 (2010) 1244–1250.
30 Liamsanguan, C., Gheewala, S.H., LCA: A decision support tool for environmental assessment of MSW
management systems. Jour. of Environ. Mgmt. 87 (2009) 132–138.
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Critiques
Life cycle assessment is a powerful tool for analyzing commensurable aspects of quantifiable systems. Not
every factor, however, can be reduced to a number and inserted into a model. Rigid system boundaries make
accounting for changes in the system difficult. This is sometimes referred to as the boundary critique to
systems thinking.
The accuracy and availability of data can also contribute to inaccuracy. For instance, data from generic
processes may be based on averages, unrepresentative sampling, or outdated results.[34]
Additionally, social implications of products are generally lacking in LCAs. Comparative life-cycle analysis is
often used to determine a better process or product to use. However, because of aspects like differing
system boundaries, different statistical information, different product uses, etc., these studies can easily be
swayed in favor of one product or process over another in one study and the opposite in another study
based on varying parameters and different available data.[35]
There are guidelines to help reduce such conflicts in results but the method still provides a lot of room for
the researcher to decide what is important, how the product is typically manufactured, and how it is
typically used.
34. Malin, Nadav, Life-cycle assessment for buildings: Seeking the Holy Grail. Building Green, 2010.
35. Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky Life-Cycle Analysis: Uses and Pitfalls. Argonne National Laboratory. Transportation Technology R&D Center
36. National Council for Air and Stream Improvement Special Report No: 04-03. Ncasi.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-14.
37. FPInnovations 2010 A Synthesis of Research on Wood Products and Greenhouse Gas Impacts 2nd Edition page 40. (PDF) . Retrieved on 201112-14.
38. Bland, W.L. and Bell, M.M. (2007). "A holon approach to agroecology". International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 5 (4): 280–294.
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LCA = LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Critiques
An in-depth review of 13 LCA studies of wood and paper products[36] found[37] a lack of consistency in the
methods and assumptions used to track carbon during the product life cycle. A wide variety of methods and
assumptions were used, leading to different and potentially contrary conclusions – particularly with regard
to carbon sequestration and methane generation in landfills and with carbon accounting during forest
growth and product use.
The Agroecology tool "agroecosystem analysis" offers a framework to incorporate incommensurable aspects
of the life cycle of a product (such as social impacts, and soil and water implications).[38]
This tool is specifically useful in the analysis of a product made from agricultural materials such as corn
ethanol or soybean biodiesel because it can account for an ecology of contexts interacting and changing
through time. This analysis tool should not be used instead of life-cycle analysis, but rather, in conjunction
with life-cycle analysis to produce a well-rounded assessment.
34. Malin, Nadav, Life-cycle assessment for buildings: Seeking the Holy Grail. Building Green, 2010.
35. Linda Gaines and Frank Stodolsky Life-Cycle Analysis: Uses and Pitfalls. Argonne National Laboratory. Transportation Technology R&D Center
36. National Council for Air and Stream Improvement Special Report No: 04-03. Ncasi.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-14.
37. FPInnovations 2010 A Synthesis of Research on Wood Products and Greenhouse Gas Impacts 2nd Edition page 40. (PDF) . Retrieved on 201112-14.
38. Bland, W.L. and Bell, M.M. (2007). "A holon approach to agroecology". International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 5 (4): 280–294.
Diunduh dari:
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LIFE CYCLE
ANALYSIS
Analysis of Environmental, Financial and Social Impacts
throughout the Life-cycle of
Products and Processes
LCA
•
•
The Concept of Environmental LCA
Methodology of Environmental LCA;
• Goal and Scope
• Inventory Analysis
• Impact Assessment
• Interpretation
A life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a comprehensive environmental management tool used to investigate the environmental impacts of
services and
activities
by taking
a 'cradleto-grave' approach.
•products,
Extending
the
scope
of Environmental
LCA; The assessment scope includes the extraction and processing
of raw materials, manufacturing, transportation and distribution, use/reuse/maintenance, recycling and final disposal
• Economic LCA
• Social LCA
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KONSEP LCA
• Products do no pollute, but their production, use and disposal do!
• Product systems are composed of interrelated processes
Life Cycle of Product Systems (Source: USEPA,
2006. Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and
Practice, Cincinnati, Ohio report no. 45268
KONSEP LCA
Some products have a dominating environmental load in
production, some in use, some in disposal:
80
70
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Production
Use
Disposal
Production
Use
Disposal
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Production
Use
Disposal
Examples:
Examples:
Examples:
books, furniture, art etc.
cars, television, airco etc.
Ni-Cd batteries, household
chemicals, fireworks etc.
KONSEP LCA
• Environmental LCA is the quantitative assessment of
environmental impacts of products or processes over
their life cycle.
 LCA is the analysis of the contribution of lifecycle stages,
product parts or processes to environmental burden.
 LCA is often used to compare between products or design
alternatives.
• Applications of LCA:
 Product improvement
 Support for strategic choices
 Benchmarking
 External communication
KONSEP LCA
• LCA is a model of a complex reality!
• …of an average lifecycle of a mass product
• …of the effect of all impacts that occur
• …of their interaction.
• Any model is a simplification of reality: If you make
a model, you must specify the goal and scope
describing why you want to make the model.
METODOLOGI LCA
1.
2.
3.
4.
Goal and Scope definition
Inventory Analysis
Impact Assessment
Interpretation
Life cycle assessment framework
Goal
and scope
definition
Direct applications:
Inventory
analysis
Interpretation
-
Product development
and improvement
-
Strategic planning
-
Public policy making
-
Marketing
-
Other
Impact
assessment
The official LCA framework according to the International Standards: ISO 14040:2006 and ISO
METODOLOGI LCA
Questions:
• What is the intended application of the LCA?
• How much effort do you want to invest?
• Who are interested parties?
• What methodology will you use?
Why is a goal and scope definition important?
–
–
–
–
guidance in data collection phase
communication base for data providers
reference for data quality management.
afterwards, to explain how choices have been made during
the various LCA phases.
METODOLOGI LCA
• Definition of functional unit, initial system boundaries and
procedural aspects
 Functional unit: comparison of products on the basis of equivalent
function, for example: comparison of 2 packaging systems for 1000
litres of milk by (a) 1000 disposable cartons or (b) 100 reusable
bottles; instead of comparison of 1 carton and 1 bottle.
 Functional unit is basis for comparison
?
=
“Compare environmental
impacts of packaging of
1000 litres milk in carton
packages or glass bottles”
METODOLOGI LCA
Definition of functional unit, initial system boundaries and
procedural aspects
1. System boundaries: definition of processes that are included
in the investigation, e.g. material extraction, processing and
transport; energy production; disposal processes. Production
of capital goods (equipment used for production and
transportation) are often excluded from the system. System
boundaries are further defined during the inventory process.
2. Procedural aspects: organizational arrangements such as a
critical review to guarantee consistency, scientific validity,
transparency of the final report and how various stakeholders
will be involved in the process (LCA is a participatory process)
METODOLOGI LCA: INVENTORY
1. Also referred to as Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) phase
2. Compiling and quantifying of inputs and outputs
3. Collecting of data, determination of total emissions and
resource use
4. Detailed defining of product system and economyenvironment boundary. Only data collection for processes
that are controlled by human beings (economic processes).
Examples: coal mining, electricity production, controlled
dumping of solid waste etc.
5. Visualizing connected processes in product system
6. Scaling of available technical data (e.g. from data libraries)
to functional unit
7. Aggregating the inputs and outputs in Inventory Table
METODOLOGI LCA:
Inventory
Example of Product system and Inventory Table
LCI table with environmental
interventions
Crude oil from
earth
40000 kg
CO2 to air
3500
SO2 to air
20 kg
reuse
NOx to air
100 kg
recycling
Cd to water
5g
PAH to water
8 kg
Etc.
…….
electricity
steel
plastic
incineration
production
distribution
use
dump
METODOLOGI LCA:
Inventory
Difficulties:
• Data availability and quality
 Data rarely available, usually special data gathering studies
needed
 Measurement procedures rarely standardized
• Geographic variations
 quality of raw materials/energy sources
 production methods
 relevant environmental impacts
• Technology
 Which type of electricity production?
 Salt Electrolysis with Mercury or Membrane process?
 Oldest, average or modern Waste Incineration Plant?
METODOLOGI LCA:
Inventory
Difficulties:
• Allocation of environmental interventions in case of multiple output processes;
 Many processes are ‘multifunctional’ (e.g. co-production, combined waste
treatment.) and interventions can be allocated to more outputs:
Electricity
production Chlorine
Salt electrolysis
Caustic Soda
•
Recyclin
g
Plastic
Plastic
bag use
producti
Paint
Old plastic
on
producti
on
Recycling and reuse
• Allocation determined by number of reuse times and fraction of materials that
can be recycled at a certain quality
METODOLOGI LCA:
Pendugaan Dampak
• Also referred to as Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)
• Linkage (long) list of LCI results to environmental impacts, like climate change,
acidification, eco-toxic impacts etc.
LCI result
Raw materials
Land use
CO2
VOS
P
SO2
NOx
CFC
Cd
PAH
DDT
Depletion
Land use
Climate change
Acidification
Eutrophication
Ecotoxicity
Humantoxicity
METODOLOGI LCA:
Pendugaan Dampak
• Steps: Characterization, Classification and Normalization:
 Determine which LCI results contribute to which impact category, e.g. CO2 and CH4 to
climate change
 Multiply environmental interventions (resources, emissions etc.) from LCI with a
characterisation factor to get indicator results
 Normalize to understand the relative magnitude of the indicator results and to get
dimensionless score (useful for comparison)
Cat. Indicator result (kg CO2 equivalent)
METODOLOGI LCA:
Pendugaan Dampak
Category indicators are quantifiable representations of impact categories
(ISO) and are defined according standards, such as CML-IA, Eco indicator 99, Impact
2002+ etc.)
Intervention
CO2
P
SO2
NOx
DDT
Dust
Effect
Greenhouse effect
Eutrophication
Acidification
Damage to Ecosystems
Pesticides
Indicator
Winter smog
VOC
Summer smog
Cd
Heavy metals
PAH
CFC
Damage
Carconogenics
Ozone layer depl.
Damage to
human health
METODOLOGI LCA:
Pendugaan Dampak
• A ‘high’ contribution to a certain impact category (a high normalized score)
does not automatically mean an ‘important’ contribution  weighing of results
is needed
• Weighing is a valuation of results and thus a normative process, depending on
preferences of researcher; which environmental impact is most important?
• Procedure of LCIA according to ISO:
- Classification and characterisation are an obligatory step.
- Normalisation is an optional step.
- Weighing is only permitted for internal decision making, and not for
comparison of products to the public.
Procedure of LCIA according to ISO 14042. The ISO 14042 standards have
recently been replaced by the ISO 14044:2006 standards, but requirements
and technical content have remained the same (see also
http://www.iso.org/iso/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1019)
METODOLOGI LCA:
Interpretasi
• “Phase of life cycle assessment in which the findings
of either the inventory analysis or the impact
assessment, or both, are combined consistent with
the defined goal and scope in order to reach
conclusions and recommendations” (ISO)
• To interpret an LCA, you must check the goal and
scope:
 Are the the general assumptions reasonable?
 Is the functional unit well chosen?
 Are ISO standards applied?
 Has a peer review been conducted?
METODOLOGI LCA:
Interpretasi
• Conduct a sensitivity analysis: analyze the
impact of important choices or assumptions
What if other allocations are applied.
What if other boundaries are applied.
What if other impact assessment method is
used.
• By recalculating the LCA with other
assumptions, we can verify how the
conclusions connect with the assumptions.
LCA diperluas:
1. LCA is often associated with environmental
impacts, but scope can be extended to include
economic and social impacts.
2. Financial LCA = Life Cycle Costing (LCC);
Analysis of life cycle costs
3. Social LCA
Social impacts throughout life cycle of products
and processes
LCA diperluas:
• What are the costs and revenues incured during
the life cycle of a product or process?
• R&D
• Production
• Marketing
• Sales
• Etc.
• Sometimes external costs included as well (costs
that are ‘imposed’ on society or the environment):
• Monetary valuation of environmental LCI and LCIA
results…but is it possible to monetise all environmental
services?
LCA diperluas:
• Social LCA analyses social impacts, such as
employment and health:




Job quality
Quality physical health
Quality social health
Earthly possessions
• Challenging to model social life cycle impacts,
because social conditions do change more rapidly




impacts from changes in employment conditions may dissipate
emotions resulting from changes disappear with time
diseases get cured
people who are laid off may find new jobs)