How Organizations Learn:
The Normative Perspective
MPA 8002
The Structure and Theory of Human
Organization
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.
Organizational life is not conducive to
learning …
…barriers to learning exist within the
organization due to the fundamental,
conflicting ways in which individuals
have been trained
The concept...

facilitating factors
…the structures and actions that provide learning
in any organizational setting which collectively
determine the organization’s learning potential
Facilitating factors (FFs) promote learning in any
organizational setting. The more that each FF is
present in an organizational setting, the greater
the opportunity present for learning. Collectively,
the FFs represent the organization’s current
potential for learning.
Represents a normative perspective…

organizational learning only transpires
under a unique sent of conditions
…presumes that the learning organization
reflects an ideal form and that
organizations moving toward that ideal
form are increasing their chances for
achieving organizational goals
…unless the right conditions are present,
organizations face what may be
insurmountable barriers to learning

the learning organization, as a
particular type of organization, is
characterized by a specific set of
internal conditions―norms―which
represent the best practices through
which knowledge is acquired,
disseminated, or used


a learning organization does not arise by
accident or happenstance but is built upon
the strategic choices of managers/leaders
developing a learning organization
requires management/leadership that
seeks to enhance its employees’
competences, corporate culture, and
formal structures in accordance with the
normative conditions

the challenge for management/leadership
is to creates a sense of urgency and vision
and provides a clear path for intervention
which results in learning
The thirteen facilitating factors…

scanning imperative

operational variety

performance gap

multiple advocates

involved leadership

systems perspective

learning confidence

shared vision

learning enjoyment

concern for
measurement
 organizational
curiosity
 climate of openness

continuous education
The thirteen facilitating factors
defined...

Scanning imperative: to scan the
environment as a basic process to increase
awareness of the need for learning
 Performance gap: the shared awareness
among organizational members that there
is a difference between the organization’s
desired and actual performance

Concern for measurement: extended
consideration of measurement issues is a
crucial component of learning, affording a
concrete way to get all participants’ mental
models out in the open
 Organizational curiosity: to view the
structuring of work at all stages of the
value chain as today’s “experiment” or
“experience gathering” as opposed to
“the one best way” to promote learning
rather than to retard it

Climate of openness: learning is a function
of daily, unplanned interactions among
people where informal contacts allow people
to pursue interesting relationships on their
own
 Continuous education: work settings
support learning of all kinds, ranging from
on-the-job and apprenticeship
experiences to company-supported
individual initiatives to seek out
knowledge and to improve skills

Operational variety: to support variation in
strategy, planning, process, structure, and
personnel so as to be able to adapt as
unforeseen problems arise
 Multiple advocates: respected people at
lower levels can be influential advocates
(“champions”) because they operate not
form a position of formal authority but
because they possess the authority of
knowledge

Involved leadership: leaders who are early
developers and students of organizational
knowledge who engage in hands-on
implementation of the vision, including
being visible in the bowels of the
organization as a model for the learning
effort
 Systems perspective: the ability to think in
terms of the synergy of whole systems
and the interdependence of the parts

Learning confidence: a lag variable
representing historical precedent indicating
that learning in the past makes learning in
the present increasingly possible

Shared vision: a qualitative measure of
team learning which occurs because
members share values or vision

Learning enjoyment: celebrating the
learning achievements and creating an
atmosphere where humor and fun are part
of the process of acquiring new
knowledge
Scanning Imperative
Approach: Myopia/Scouting…

to scan the environment as a basic
process to increase awareness of the
need for learning
 myopia: the focus is solely upon what the
organization does

scouting: the focus is upon environmental
scanning to envision alternative ways to
enhance performance
Scanning Imperative Challenge...

Ask: What does the organizational need to
know and to learn?
…scanning the environment to sense
development problems or opportunities,
to stimulate and direct knowledge
acquisition, and to respond proactively
Performance Gap
Approach: Managerial feedback/incremental
improvement…

the shared awareness among organizational
members that there is a difference between
the organization’s desired and actual
performance
 managerial feedback: the analysis of
performance shortfalls which can inhibit
learning
 incremental improvement: the abiding
interest into analyzing how better to
achieve desired outcomes
Performance Gap Challenge...

Ask: What does the organizational
shortfalls?
…awareness of a performance gap opens
the door to organizational learning as
this awareness stimulates the need to
generate new knowledge or to “unlearn”
unproductive behaviors or processes
Concern for Measurement
Approach: Monitoring and
control/incremental improvement…

extended consideration of measurement
issues is a crucial component of learning,
affording a concrete way to get all
participants’ mental models out in the open
 monitoring and control: the analysis of
performance shortfalls which can inhibit
learning
 incremental improvement: the abiding
interest into analyzing how better to
achieve desired outcomes
Concern for Measurement
Challenge...

Ask: What don’t people want to consider?
…approaching a problem with an open
mind concerning what needs to be
measured and the use of metric
development can provide a powerful
learning experience
Organizational Curiosity
Approach: Validation/Experimentation…

to view the structuring of work at all stages
of the value chain as today’s “experiment”
or “experience gathering” as opposed to
“the one best way” to promote learning
rather than to retard it
 validation: interest is focused upon the
“one best way”
 experimentation: a learning laboratory
allows for pilot programs and “small
failures” that promote learning
Organizational Curiosity
Challenge...

Ask: What don’t I want to tamper with?
…to adopt a plan for small, evolutionary
experiments that promote learning rather
than to contemplate revolutionary efforts
that promise failure
Climate of Openness
Approach: Formal/Informal...

learning is a function of daily, unplanned
interactions among people where informal
contacts allow people to pursue interesting
relationships on their own
 formal: hierarchical relationships and
networks set perimeters for knowledge
acquisition
 informal: knowledge is acquired through
interactions defined by interests and
needs
Climate of Openness Challenge...

Ask: Who possesses knowledge I need?
…to allow freedom within which people can
express their views so that information
boundaries are permeable and
organizational members can observe,
participate, debate, and disagree
Continuous Education
Approach: Formal/Informal…

work settings support learning of all kinds,
ranging from on-the-job and apprenticeship
experiences to company-supported
individual initiatives to seek out knowledge
and to improve skills
 formal: the organization prescribes the
learning
 informal: people take responsibility for
their learning
Continuous Education Challenge...

Ask: What needs to be learned?
…to provide schemes in which people
select their developmental experiences,
seek out learning opportunities within
and without the organization, and take
personal responsibility in general for
their own continuous learning and, then,
demonstrate it applicability for the
organization
Operational Variety
Approach: One Best Way/Many Best Ways…

to support variation in strategy, planning,
process, structure, and personnel so as to be
able to adapt as unforeseen problems arise
 one best way: organization punishes
variation in strategy, policy, etc.
 many best ways: organization supports
variations by providing opportunities for
people to understand the implications and
consequences of different ways to
achieve shared goals
Operational Variety Challenge...

Ask: How might we work to achieve our
goals?
…to develop multiple role models and
provide multiple opportunities for people
to understand examine the multiple
implications and consequences of
different ways of working
Multiple Advocates
Approach: Power/Knowledge…

respected people at lower levels can be
influential advocates (“champions”) because
they operate not form a position of formal
authority but because they possess the
authority of knowledge
 power: a small number of advocates and
gatekeepers promote a narrow agenda

knowledge: a large number of advocates
and gatekeepers promote several agendas
Multiple Advocates Challenge...

Ask: Who possesses critical knowledge
and skills?
…to promote “project champions” who
contribute new ideas and introduce new
knowledge into the organizational
system and who influence others
regarding the value of the new ideas and
knowledge
Involved Leadership
Approach: Hands Off/Hands On…

leaders who are early developers and
students of organizational knowledge who
engage in hands-on implementation of the
vision, including being visible in the bowels
of the organization as a model for the
learning effort
 hands off: mandate learning

hands on: a model and stimulus for
learning
Involved Leadership Challenge...

Ask: Who sees me learning and where?
…to stimulate learning by benchmarking
against exemplars, providing coaches,
developing critical self-awareness,
involving others in small-scale studies,
and participating in programs with those
supervised
Systems Perspective
Approach: Individual Parts/Synergy of the Whole…

the ability to think in terms of the synergy
of whole systems and the interdependence
of the parts

individual parts: focusing upon
idiosyncratic processes, structures, and
dispersed actions
 synergy of the whole: thinking in terms of
the organization as a system and the
interdependence of parts
Systems Perspective Challenge...

Ask: How does everything work together?
…to enhance cognitive complexity in
people so that they envision better
synergies and develop their
competencies across a broad array of
organizational activities
Learning Confidence
Approach: Fearful/Eager…

a lag variable representing historical
precedent indicating that learning in the
past makes learning in the present
increasingly possible
 fearful: challenging taken-for-granted
beliefs, assumptions, and values is
punished
 eager: thinking in critical terms about the
the organization is rewarded
Shared Vision
Approach: Conformity/Commitment…

a qualitative measure of team learning
which occurs because members share
values or vision

conformity: acceptance is without
question and with little time, feeling, or
focus devoted to its implementation
 commitment: people believe in the
organizational vision and devote their
time, feeling, and focus to its
implementation
Shared Vision Challenge...

Ask: Are people enthusiastic about why we
do what we do?
…to “drive” the vision and its values
throughout the organization so that
decisions can be made at the lowest
level possible in the organizational
hierarchy as people relate what they do
to why we do it
Learning Enjoyment
Approach: Participates/Embodies…

celebrating the learning achievements and
creating an atmosphere where humor and
fun are part of the process of acquiring new
knowledge
 participates: involvement is purely
functional based upon contractual
requirements
 embodies: involvement is a substantive
response to one’s belief and faith in the
organization and its members
Learning Enjoyment Challenge...

Ask: Do people believe in themselves and
one another?
…to promote an organizational culture
where people can be authentic with one
another in their formal and informal
networks and relationships
The 13 FFs and building
organizational learning capacity…

the 13 FFs represent the critical factors
indicating the degree to which organizational
learning actually takes place…
…because the FFs are normative, it would
be ideal for an organization to exhibit as
many of these FFs as is possible

management/leadership must now
formulate a learning portfolio and learning
strategy to develop the organization’s
learning capacity
This module has focused on...
facilitating factors
…the structures and actions that provide
learning in any organizational setting
which collectively determine the
organization’s learning potential
The next module will focus on...
The capability perspective
...the processes by which
managers/leaders foster the
development of those behaviors
which build an organizational
culture characterized by learning