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FOREWORD
G
lory to the God of heaven and earth, the Lord of lords, the King of kings, the
Almighty and Most High God, the God of all the earth!
It is most privileged as a human being to search and study about God. For God’s ways are
not our ways. The infinite, unfathomable God to be studied by a finite and limited creature is an
attempt that humbles one’s heart. He alone knows all things and without Him we are nothing and
cannot do anything. It is with deep insight that comes from Him that shall set us free and receive
enlightenment.
I have selected the major religions man has known today and with these include the cults
and the occults. Cults are also religions but have the masked of Christianity. They profess
Christianity but their doctrines. gospel and lives they deny His saving work on the cross. He died
and resurrected for the sins of all man once and for all and salvation is through Him alone and not
by any group or church. Occults are those involved in deep spiritual darkness— commonly
known as satanic in rituals and beliefs. The religions of man continued the search for God. He has
developed religions and beliefs. Preconceived ideas of the Creator whether man made, revelation
by spirits, or angels of light supposedly abound and seem endless.
There are few things I have deeply observed and have found that these religions have
many common characteristics. “Gods” have evolved or “gods” were made by men. Is it right that
we should receive “gods” whose beginning or origin is from man’s thoughts or ideas? These
religions have built their roots and were imbedded in the lives of many people. These have been
part of their lives. The sad part many blindly follow them. Some unknown spirits transformed
themselves into angels of light reveal a new “god” or “gods”, new revelations or teachings. Can
the true God reveal Himself directly to man? How can we know that these spirits are from God?
Who is behind these spirits? Why do their revelations contradict earlier revelations? Who is
behind these contradictions?
Man searched for enlightenment, peace and truth. God made man and has endowed him
the consciousness of the Almighty. He can search and grope for God. Religions have searched for
God but God came through His Son Jesus Christ. There is no religious founder who claimed He is
the Son of God, came down from Heaven to earth, done no evil, healed the sick, set people free
and died and rose from the dead other than Jesus Christ. That is the difference of true
Christianity. Jesus Christ is the Son of God who came and took the human form and lived with
us. He died on the cross to pay for our sins and obtained the ransom for us so that whoever
believes shall be forgiven and be saved.
I hope this will end the search for the true God and may you find Him through His Son
Jesus Christ. To Him is the highest praise both now and forever.
May the Almighty God guide you.
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Pastor Larry Dela Cruz
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CONTENTS
“The Search for God”
Foreword
Part I
------------------------------------ 2
RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
History Timeline of World Religions and its Founders -------- 5
Founders of Religions and Churches -------------------- 7
Hinduism
--------------------------------------------------- 9
Buddhism
--------------------------------------------- 21
Chinese Religion -------------------------------------------------- 31
Islam --------------------------------------------------------- 55
Judaism
----------------------------------------------------- 79
Christianity ----------------------------------------------- 110
Roman Catholicism ---------------------------------------- 147
SUMMARY, DEEP ANALYSIS AND INSIGHTS ------------ 165
Part II
CULTS & THE OCCULTS
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints --------- 168
Jehovah’s Witnesses ----------------------------------------- 172
Iglesia ni Kristo
--------------------------------- 175
Church of God International -------------------------------- 179
Kingdom of Jesus Christ -------------------------------- 183
Seventh-day Adventist
-------------------------------- 188
SUMMARY & ANALYSIS OF THE CULTS --------------------- 190
WHAT THE BIBLE HAS TO SAY TO THE CULTS --------- 191
Occultism -------------------------------------------------- 192
WHAT THE BIBLE HAS TO SAY TO THE OCCULTS ------ 193
INVITATION ------------------------------------------------ 194
HOW TO BE SAVED ----------------------------------------- 194
Religion Charts--------------------------------------------- 196
Comparison/Contrast of Various Religions & Christianity--------197
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RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD
History Timeline of World Religions and its Founders
2,085 BC. Judaism-Abraham
1,500 BC. Hinduism- no specific founder
560 BC. Buddhism- Gautama Buddha
550 BC. Taoism - Lao Tzu
599 BC. Jainism, Mahavira
30 AD. Christianity –Jesus Christ
50-100 AD. Gnosticism150-250 AD. -Modalism (Monarchianism)–Sabellius, Praxeus, Noetus, Paul of Samosata
325 AD. -After being persecuted for almost 200 years Constantine made the Church
becomes a legal religion, compromise begins to enter.
590 AD.-Roman Catholicism- Developed after Constantine; Pope Gregory?
610 AD.- Islam- Mohammed
1400 AD.- Rosicrucians-Christian Rosenkreuz (1694 US) Rosicrucians- Master Kelpius,
Johann Andrea
1515 AD.- Protestantism- (Reformers) Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin
1650 AD.- Tibetan Buddhism-Dalai Lama
1700 AD.- Freemasony- Albert Mackey, Albert Pike
1760 AD.-Swedenborgism- Emmanuel Swedenborg
1784 AD.- Shakers - Mother Ann Lee
1830 AD.- Mormonism – Joseph Smith
1830 AD.-Cambellites-Alexander & Thomas Cambell, Barton Stone
1838 AD.-Tenrikyo- Miki Maegawa Nakayama
1844 AD.-Christadelphians- John Thomas
1840-45 AD.-Millerites 2nd day Adventists –William Miller then became 7th Day
Adventists
1844 AD.-Bahai- Baha'u'llah (Abul Baha)
1845-1870AD.- 7th Day Adventists-E.G. White
1848 AD.-Spiritualism - Kate and Margaret Fox
1870 AD.-Jehovah's Witnesses- Charles Taze Russell
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1875 AD.-Theosophical Society- H.P. Blavatsky, Henry Olcott
1879 AD.-Christian Science-Mary Baker Eddy
1889-1924 AD.-Unity School of Christianity- Myrtle Fillmore
1900 AD.-Rosicrucian Fellowship-Max Heindel
1902 AD.- Anthroposophical Society –Rudolf Steiner
1906 AD. -The Pentecostal Assemblies of the World
1914 AD.- Iglesia ni Cristo- Felix Manalo
1914 AD.- Oneness Pentecostalism- Frank Ewart, G.T.Haywood, Glenn Cook
1917 AD.-True Jesus Church. Founders Paul Wei, Lingsheng Chang and Barnabas Chang
1930 AD. -Black Muslims (Nation of Islam) –Wallace D. Fard
1927 AD.- Mind Science- Ernest Holmes
1934 AD.-World Wide Church of God- Herbert W. Armstrong
1935 AD.-Self Realization Fellowship- Paramahansa Yogananda
1954 AD.- Unification Church- Sun Myung Moon
1945 AD. -The Way -Victor P.Wierwille
1948 AD.- Latter Rain –Franklin Hall, George Warnock.
1964 AD.- Eckankar The Ancient Science of Soul Travel (Eck). Founded by Paul
Twitchell
1968 AD.- Hare Krishna (US)- Swami Prabhupada
1968 AD.- Children of God- David (Moses) Berg
1945 AD.-United Pentecostal International- Howard Goss, W.T. Witherspoon (can be
traced back to 1914)
1944 AD.- Silva Mind Control –Jose Silva
1950 AD.-Urantia Book- Dr. Bill Sadler
1950 AD.-Lafayette Ronald Hubbard published his book Dianetics-SCIENTOLOGY
1954 AD.-Atherius Society (UFO’s)- Dr. George King
1955 AD.- Scientology- L. Ron Hubbard
1958 AD.- Institute of Divine Metaphysical Research- Henry Kinley
1958-1970 AD.- Church Universal and Triumphant –Mark and E.C. Prophet
1958 AD. -Henry Kinley begins (IDMR) the Institute of Divine Metaphysical Research
1959 AD.-Unitariarian Universalist
1960 AD.-Transcendental meditation- Maharishi Mahesh Yogi
1960 AD.-Enkankar- Paul Twitchell
1961 AD.- Unitarian Universalism was officially formed.
1965 AD.-Assembly of Yahweh-Jacob Meyer
1966 AD.- Church of Satan –Anton LaVey
1970 AD.-Findhorn Community –Peter and Eileen Caddy –David Spangler
1970 AD.- Divine light Mission- Guru Maharaj Ji
1973 AD.- CARP was established in the United States. [The Collegiate Association for
the Research of Principles] to introduce the teachings of un Myung Moon.
1974 AD.-Assemblies of Yahweh-Sam Suratt
1979 AD.-Church of Christ International - Kip McKean
1980 -1982 AD.- Tara Center-Benjamen Crème
1980 AD.- House of Yahweh (Abilene) Jacob Hawkins
Oppenheimer , Mike.“History Timeline of World Religions and its Founders”.Let us Reason Ministries.3february2014.
<http://www.letusreason.org/Cult11.htm>
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Founders of Religions and Churches
Judaism - Abraham; Moses
Rabbinic Judaism - Johanan ben Zakkai
Kabbala - Moses de Leon
Modern Hasidism - Israel ben Eliezer
The Haskala or Enlightenment - Moses Mendelson
Zionism - Theodore Herzl
Secular Humanistic Judaism - Sherwin T. Wine
Jews for Jesus - Moishe Rosen
Christianity - Jesus Christ
Orthodox (Eastern) - Michael Cerularius, 1054
Protestants, Lutherans - Martin Luther, 1517
Anabaptists - Zwingli, 1519
Church of England, Anglicanism - Henry VIII, 1534
Calvinism; Dutch Reformed - Calvin, 1536
Presbyterians - Knox, 1560
Puritans - Cartwright, 1570
Congregationalists - Brown, 1582
Baptists - John Smith, 1605
Episcopalians - Seabury, 1620
Quakers - Fox, 1654
Shakers - Ann Lee, 1741
Methodists - Wesley, 1744
Unitarians - Lindsay, 1774
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints - Joseph Smith, Jr. 1830
Churches of Christ, Christian Church - Campbell and Stone, 1832
Adventists - Miller, 1846
Jehovah's Witnesses - Russell, 1852
Salvation Army - Rev. General William Booth and Catherine Booth, 1865
Christian Science - Mary Baker Eddy, 1879
Unity School of Christianity - Fillmore, 1889
Pentecostals - Parham, 1900
Worldwide Church of God - Herbert W. Armstrong, 1934
Calvary Chapel - Chuck Smith, 1965
Islam - Muhammad
Sunnis - Abu
Shi'ites - Abdullah bin Saba'a
Sufi - Ahmad al-Quadina
Black Muslims - Timothy Drew
Buddhism: Buddha (Sidhartha Gautama)
Nichiren Buddhism - Nichiren
Hinduism
Transcendental Meditation - Guru Maharishi Mahest Yogi
ISKCON - Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhuda
Rajneeshism/OSHO - Bhagwan Rajneesh
Divine Light Mission - Maharaj Ji
Vedanta Society - Swami Vivekenanda
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Krishnamurti Foundation of America - Annie Besant
Free Pimitive Church of Divine Communion - Bubba Free John
Hanuman Foundation - Richard Alpert
Himalayan Institute of Yoga Science - Swami Rami
Self-Realization Fellowship - Paramahansa Yogananda
Shree Gurudev Siddha Yoga Ashram - Swami Muktananda Paramahansa
Sikhism - Guru Nanak
3HO Foundation - Yogi Bhajan
Taoism - Lao-Tze
Jainism - Mahavira
Confucianism - Kung-futze (Confucius)
Baha'i Faith - Baha'u'llah
Zoroastrinaism, Parsis - Zoroaster
Subud - RM.Muhamad Subud Sumohadiwijojo
Theosophy - Madame Helena Petrova Blavatsky
New Age - Alice Bailey
est: - Werner Erhard
Church Universal and Triumphant: - Elisabeth Prophet, 1958
Spititualism - Kate Fox, 1848; Kardec
Unitarian Universalist Association - merger of Unitarians and Univeralists, 1959
Eckankar - John Paul Twitchell
Dominguez, Jerome.“Founders of Religions and Churches”. The Hispanic Catholic Charismatic
Renewal(Adherents).3February2014.<http://www.adherents.com/misc/adh_founders.html>.
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HINDUISM
What is Hinduism?
About 80 percent of India's population regard themselves as Hindus and 30 million more
Hindus live outside of India. There are a total of 900 million Hindus worldwide, making
Hinduism the third largest religion (after Christianity and Islam).
The term "Hinduism" includes numerous traditions, which are closely related and share
common themes but do not constitute a unified set of beliefs or practices.
Hinduism is thought to have gotten its name from the Persian word hindu, meaning
"river," used by outsiders to describe the people of the Indus River Valley. Hindus
themselves refer to their religion as sanatama dharma, "eternal religion," and
varnasramadharma, a word emphasizing the fulfillment of duties (dharma) appropriate
to one's class (varna) and stage of life (asrama).
Hinduism has no founder or date of origin. The authors and dates of most Hindu sacred
texts are unknown. Scholars describe modern Hinduism as the product of religious
development in India that spans nearly four thousand years, making it the oldest
surviving world religion. Indeed, as seen above, Hindus regard their religion as eternal
(sanatama).
Hinduism is not a homogeneous, organized system. Many Hindus are devoted followers
of Shiva or Vishnu, whom they regard as the only true God, while others look inward to
the divine Self (atman). But most recognize the existence of Brahman, the unifying
principle and Supreme Reality behind all that is.
Most Hindus respect the authority of the Vedas (a collection of ancient sacred texts) and
the Brahmans (the priestly class), but some reject one of both of these authorities. Hindu
religious life might take the form of devotion to God or gods, the duties of family life, or
concentrated meditation. Given all this diversity, it is important to take care when
generalizing about "Hinduism" or "Hindu beliefs."
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The first sacred writings of Hinduism, which date to about 1200 BC, were primarily
concerned with the ritual sacrifices associated with numerous gods who represented
forces of nature. A more philosophical focus began to develop around 700 BC, with the
Upanishads and development of the Vedanta philosophy. Around 500 BC, several new
belief systems sprouted from Hinduism, most significantly Buddhism and Jainism.
In the 20th century, Hinduism began to gain popularity in the West. Its different
worldview and its tolerance for diversity in belief made it an attractive alternative to
traditional Western religion. Although there are relatively few western converts to
Hinduism, Hindu thought has influenced the West indirectly by way of religious
movements like Hare Krishna and New Age, and even more so through the incorporation
of Indian beliefs and practices (such as the chakra system and yoga) in books and
seminars on health and spirituality.
What is the history of Hinduism?
The history of Hinduism is unique among the world religions in that it has no founder or
date of origin. While most major religions derive from new ideas taught by a charismatic
leader, Hinduism is simply the religion of the people of India, which has gradually
developed over four thousand years. The origins and authors of its sacred texts are largely
unknown.
Although today's Hinduism differs significantly from earlier forms of Indian religion,
Hinduism's roots date back as far as 2000 BC, making it one of the oldest surviving
religions. Because of its great age, the early history of Hinduism is unclear. The most
ancient writings have yet to be deciphered, so for the earliest periods scholars must rely
on educated guesses based on archaeology and the study of contemporary texts.
In the last few decades, the history of India's religion has also become a matter of
political controversy. The history of any nation (or individual) is an important part of its
self-identity, and this is especially true of India, which so recently gained independence
after centuries of colonial rule. The controversy over India's history centers on the origin
of the Aryan culture, as we shall see in more detail below.
The Indus River Valley Civilization
In 1921, archaeologists uncovered evidence of an ancient civilization along the Indus
River, which today runs through northwest India into Pakistan. The so-called Indus
Valley civilization (also known as the "Harappan civilization" for one of its chief cities)
is thought to have originated as early as 7000 BC and to have reached is height between
2300 to 2000 BC, at which point it encompassed over 750,000 square miles and traded
with Mesopotamia.
Some writings of this period has been discovered, but unfortunately in such small
amounts that they have yet to be deciphered. Knowledge of this great civilization's
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religion must therefore be based on physical evidence alone. Baths have been found that
may indicate ritual bathing, a component of modern Hinduism. Some altar-like structures
may be evidence of animal sacrifice, and terracotta figures may represent deities. An
important seal features a horned figure surrounded by animals, which some conjecture is
a prototype of Shiva, but it could be a bull parallel to that found on Mesopotamian seals.
The Controversial Aryans
The Indus Valley culture began to decline around 1800 BC, due possibly to flooding or
drought. Until recently, it was held that the Aryans (an Indo-European culture whose
name comes from the Sanskrit for "noble") invaded India and Iran at this time. According
to this hypothesis, both the Sanskrit language and the Vedic religion foundational to
Hinduism is attributable to the Aryans and their descendants. The original inhabitants of
the Indus Valley are thought to have had a Dravidian language and culture, which
became subordinate to that of the invading peoples.
Proponents of this hypothesis point to similarities between Zoroastrianism (the ancient
religion of Iran) and the Vedic religion of ancient India, as well as similar finds in ancient
cemeteries in modern-day India and Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. In addition, no trace of
horses or chariots have been found in the remains of the Indus Valley culture, but were
central to Aryan military and ritual life.
Since the 1980s, this "Aryan Invasion" hypothesis has been strongly challenged as a
myth propagated by colonial scholars who sought to reinforce the idea that anything
valuable in India must have come from elsewhere. Critics of the hypothesis note that
there is lack of evidence of any conquest, among other historical and archaeological
problems.
One alternative hypothesis is explained by Encyclopædia Britannica as follows:
Between about 2000 and 1500 BCE not an invasion but a continuing spread of Indo-Aryan speakers
occurred, carrying them much farther into India, to the east and south, and coinciding with a growing
cultural interaction between the native population and the new arrivals. From these processes a new cultural
synthesis emerged, giving rise by the end of the 2nd millennium to the conscious expressions of Aryan
ethnicity found in the Rigveda, particularly in the later hymns.
The 19th-century Aryan Invasion theory has generally been abandoned as inaccurate, but
most scholars do not reject the notion of some outside influence on the Indus Valley
civilization. For many, it is a political issue as well as a historical one, with the original
theory is regarded as racist and offensive. BBC Religion & Ethics summarizes the matter
this way:
Many people argue that there is now evidence to show that Muller [original proponent of the hypothesis],
and those who followed him, were wrong. Others, however, believe that the case against the Aryan
invasion theory is far from conclusive. The matter remains very controversial and highly politicised.
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What do Hindus believe?
Hinduism embraces a great diversity of beliefs, a fact that can be initially confusing to
westerners accustomed to creeds, confessions, and carefully-worded belief statements.
One can believe a wide variety of things about God, the universe and the path to
liberation and still be considered a Hindu.
This attitude towards religious belief has made Hinduism one of the more open-minded
religions when it comes to evaluating other faiths. Probably the most well-known Hindu
saying about religion is: "Truth is one; sages call it by different names."
However, there are some beliefs common to nearly all forms of Hinduism that can be
identified, and these basic beliefs are generally regarded as boundaries outside of which
lies either heresy or non-Hindu religion. These fundamental Hindu beliefs include: the
authority of the Vedas (the oldest Indian sacred texts) and the Brahmans (priests); the
existence of an enduring soul that transmigrates from one body to another at death
(reincarnation); and the law of karma that determines one's destiny both in this life and
the next.
Note that a specific belief about God or gods is not considered one of the essentials,
which is a major difference between Hinduism and strictly monotheistic religions like
Christianity, Judaism, Islam and Sikhism. Most Hindus are devoted followers of one of
the principal gods Shiva, Vishnu or Shakti, and often others besides, yet all these are
regarded as manifestations of a single Reality.
The ultimate goal of all Hindus is release (moksha) from the cycle of rebirth (samsara).
For those of a devotional bent, this means being in God's presence, while those of a
philosophical persuasion look forward to uniting with God as a drop of rain merges with
the sea.
Authority of the Vedas and Brahmans
The authority of the ancient scriptures known as the Vedas as well as that of the priests
known as the Brahmans are two concepts that are fundamental to Hinduism and
differentiate the faith from Buddhism and Jainism.
What is the authority of the Vedas and Brahmans in
Hinduism?
A fundamental defining characteristic of Hindu belief is the recognition of the Vedas, the
most ancient Hindu scriptures, as an absolute religious authority. This is affirmed by
virtually all traditional Hindus, and those who reject its authority (such as Buddhists and
Jains) are regarded as unfaithful to their tradition.
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Interestingly, however, the contents of the Vedas are practically unknown to most Hindus
and the texts are seldom drawn upon for information or advice. Yet the Vedas are
regarded as the basis of all the later texts used in Hindu doctrine and practice, parts of the
Vedas are still quoted in essential Hindu rituals, and they are the source of many enduring
patterns of Hindu thought.
Another characteristic of Hinduism is the belief in the power and authority of the
Brahmans (also spelled Brahmins), a priestly class that has spiritual supremacy by birth.
Brahmans are the highest ranking caste in society and represent the ideal of ritual purity
and social prestige. Because of their great purity, the Brahmans are called upon to
perform vital religious tasks as well as interpret and teach the scriptures. The Brahman
family priest officiates at weddings, funerals, and other ceremonial occasions.
Brahman: Ultimate Reality
Most Hindus venerate one or more deities, but regard these as manifestations of Ultimate Reality. So who,
or what, is the Ultimate Reality that is behind the universe and all the gods? In the Rig Veda, it is referred
to as "the One." In the Purushasukta, it is given the name "Purusha," and in the Upanishads it is called
"Brahman," "the One," and several other names.
Who is Brahman?
Most Hindus venerate one or more deities, but regard these as manifestations of Ultimate
Reality. The Ultimate Reality that is behind the universe and all the gods is called by
different names, but most commonly Brahman (not to be confused with the creator god
Brahma or the priestly class of Brahmans).
In the Rig Veda, Ultimate Reality is referred to as "the One." In the Purushasukta, it is
"Purusha," and in the Upanishads it is called "Brahman," "the One," and several other
names. Most modern Hindus refer to the Ultimate Reality as Brahman.
The Upanishads describe Brahman as "the eternal, conscious, irreducible, infinite,
omnipresent, spiritual source of the universe of finiteness and change." Brahman is the
source of all things and is in all things; it is the Self (atman) of all living beings.
Brahman is impersonal Being in itself, but it can be known through the many gods and
goddesses that are manifestations of Brahman.
Karma
The Sanskirt word karma means "actions" and refers to the fundamental Hindu principle
that one's moral actions have unavoidable and automatic effects on one's fortunes in this
life and condition of rebirth in the next.
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What is Karma?
The Sanskrit word karma means "actions" or "deeds." As a religious term, karma refers
to intentional (usually moral) actions that affect one's fortunes in this life and the next.
Karma (or kamma in Pali) is a concept common to Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, but
interpreted in different ways. This article focuses specifically on Hindu beliefs about
karma.
The concept of karma or "law of karma" is the broader principle that all of life is
governed by a system of cause and effect, action and reaction, in which one's deeds have
corresponding effects on the future. Karma is thus a way of explaining evil and
misfortune in the world, even for those who do not appear to deserve it - their misfortune
must be due to wrong actions in their previous life.
In Hindu texts, the word karma first appears in the ancient Rig Veda, but there it simply
means religious action and animal sacrifice. There is some hint of the later meaning of
karma in the Brahmanas, but it is not until the Upanishads that karma is expressed as a
principle of cause and effect based on actions. One example is in Brhadaranyaka
Upanishad 4.4.5.
Karma is regarded as a fundamental law of nature that is automatic and mechanical. It is
not something that is imposed by God or a god as a system of punishment or reward, nor
something that the gods can interfere with.
The word karma refers primarily to "bad karma" - that which is accumulated as a result
of wrong actions. Bad karma binds a person's soul (atman) to the cycle of rebirth
(samsara) and leads to misfortune in this life and poor conditions in the next. The moral
energy of a particular moral act bears fruit automatically in the next life, manifested in
one's class, disposition, and character.
Hindu texts also prescribe a number of activities, such as pilgrimages to holy places and
acts of devotion, that can wipe out the effects of bad karma. Such positive actions are
sometimes referred to as "good karma." Some versions of the theory of karma also say
that morally good acts have positive consequences (as opposed to simply neutral).
In Vedanta and Yoga teachings, there are three types of karma:
1.
2.
3.
Prarabdha karma - karma experienced during the present lifetime
Sancita karma - the store of karma that has not yet reached fruition
Agamin or sanciyama karma - karma sown in the present life that will come to fruition in a future
life
The process by which karma is understood to work through various rebirths is as follows:
1.
2.
Good or bad actions create impressions (samskaras) or tendencies (vasanas) in the mind, which in
time will come to fruition in further action (more karma).
The seeds of karma are carried in the subtle body (linga), in which the soul transmigrates.
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3.
The physical body (sthula sarira) is the field in which the fruit of karma is experienced and more
karma is created.
The purpose of life in Hinduism is thus to minimize bad karma in order to enjoy better
fortune in this life and achieve a better rebirth in the next. The ultimate spiritual goal is to
achieve release (moksha) from the cycle of samsara altogether. It may take hundreds or
thousands of rebirths to get rid of all of one's accumulated karma and achieve moksha.
The person who has become liberated (attained moksha) creates no more new karma
during the present lifetime and is not reborn after death.
Various methods to attain moksha are taught by different schools, but most include
avoiding attachment to impermanent things, carrying out one's duties, and realizing the
ultimate unity between one's soul or self (atman) and ultimate reality (Brahman). See the
article on the Purpose of Life in Hinduism for more information.
Polytheism?
Hinduism is a decidedly theistic religion, but it can be difficult to determine whether it is
a polytheistic, pantheistic, or even monotheistic religion. Of course, this is chiefly a
western question: the Indian mind is much more inclined to regard divergent views as
complementary rather than competing.
Hinduism and Theism
Hinduism is a decidedly theistic religion; the difficulty lies in determining whether it is a
polytheistic, pantheistic, or perhaps even monotheistic religion. It should be noted at the
outset, however, that this is chiefly a western difficulty: the Indian mind is much more
inclined to regard divergent views as complementary rather than competing.
Supporting a view of Hinduism as a polytheistic religion is the great pantheon of Hindu
gods. The oldest and most sacred texts, the Vedas, are chiefly concerned with
mythologies and rituals related to a number of deities, most of which are identified with
aspects of the natural world. The gods of modern Hinduism include the chief gods Shiva,
Vishnu and the Mother Goddess Shakti as well as a myriad of local community gods.
Devotion to these various deities is based primarily on one's region and needs, and even
when devotion is given to only one, the existence of others is acknowledged. Hindu
worship virtually always involves sculptures and images, to which offerings are made
and rituals are performed.
Despite these polytheistic elements, however, many Hindus explain that the gods are
various forms of a single Supreme Being (see quotes below). Similarly, the philosophical
Hindu texts advocate a pantheistic view of ultimate reality. These texts, most notably the
Upanishads, explain that there exists a single Supreme Reality, called Brahman. Brahman
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is often personified and presented as the One that must be sought, and can begin to sound
like monotheism. Yet the ultimate revelation of the Upanishads is that the self (atman) is
identical with Brahman. Life is therefore best spent not in rituals and offerings to the
gods, but in deep meditation on the self until this truth is experienced firsthand.
So is Hinduism polytheistic, pantheistic, or monotheistic? Contributing to the difficulty
of answering this question is the fact that Hindus are not nearly as concerned as are
western thinkers with such labels and categories. After all, it is a favorite Hindu saying
that "The Truth is One, but different sages call it by different names." But when Hindus
do define their religion in these terms, usually for the benefit of curious westerners, they
tend to do so in terms of monotheism and pantheism:
"Hinduism worships multiple forms of the one God." (OM, an American Hindu organization)
"According to the tenets of Hinduism, God is one as well as many." (HinduWebsite.com)
"Hindus believe in monotheistic polytheism, rather than polytheism." (The Hindu Universe)
"Even though Hinduism is mistakenly regarded by many as a religion having many gods namely,
polytheism, yet truly speaking Hinduism is a monotheistic religion." (Sri Swami Chidanda)
Why not monotheism? Although "monotheism" literally means belief in the existence of
one God, the term has come to denote belief in a God who created and is distinct from the
universe. Pantheism is the view that God is essentially identical with the universe and
totally immanent in the world: God is the universe and the universe is God. Thus
pantheism seems to be the most accurate label for Hinduism. The "with polytheistic
elements" qualifier is added because the Supreme Being of Hinduism is most often
worshipped in the form of multiple deities.
However, it must be noted that this is a generalization that does not describe the beliefs of
all Hindus. Some regard the universe as created by and essentially distinct from God, and
are therefore "monotheistic" in the traditional sense.
Purpose of Life
In Hinduism, there is not just one purpose of human life, but four: Dharma - fulfilling
one's purpose; Artha - prosperity; Kama - desire, sexuality, enjoyment; and Moksha enlightenment.
16
What is the purpose of life in Hinduism?
In Hinduism, there is not just one purpose of human life, but four:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Dharma - fulfilling one's purpose
Artha - prosperity
Kama - desire, sexuality, enjoyment
Moksha - enlightenment
Dharma
The Sanskrit word dharma means many things, including "law," "teaching" and
"religion." In this context, it means one's destiny or purpose. In general, it refers to one's
vocation or career, which is often defined by class and family. If a Hindu man's father is a
tire maker, his dharma is probably to make tires, too. Traditionally, the dharma of most
women has been to be a housewife and a mother.
Another aspect of dharma is paying the five debts. Hindus believe that they are born in
debt to the gods and various humans, and they must repay those karmic debts during their
lifetime. The debts are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Debt to the gods for their blessings; paid by rituals and offerings.
Debt to parents and teachers; paid by supporting them, having children of one's own and passing
along knowledge.
Debt to guests; repaid by treating them as if they were gods visiting one's home.
Debt to other human beings; repaid by treating them with respect.
Debt to all other living beings; repaid by offering good will, food or any other help that is
appropriate.
Dharma also means righteousness, or living morally and ethically at all times.
Artha: Prosperity
Artha is prosperity or success in worldly pursuits. Although the ultimate goal of
Hinduism is enlightenment, the pursuit of wealth and prosperity is regarded as an
appropriate pursuit for the householder (the second of four life stages). It also ensures
social order, for there would be no society if everyone renunciated worldly life to
meditate. But while Hindus are encouraged to make money, it must be within the bounds
of dharma.
Kama: Pleasure
Kama (Sanskrit, "desire") primarily refers to romantic love and sexual pleasure, though it
can refer to desire in general. Like artha, kama is seen as an appropriate pursuit of the
17
householder. The Kama Sutra, a manual for erotic and other human pleasures (like
flower-arranging), is attributed to the sage Vatsyayana.
Moksha: Enlightenment
The ultimate end of every Hindu's life is moksha, which can be understood in a variety of
ways: liberation from rebirth, enlightenment, Self-realization, or union with God. This is
considered to the be the highest purpose of life, although very few can achieve it in a
single lifetime and there are a variety of paths to attain it.
Who are the gods and goddesses in Hinduism?
The gods of modern Hinduism are many, and include the chief gods Shiva, Vishnu and
the Goddess Shakti as well as a myriad of local community gods.
Devotion to these various deities is based primarily on one's region and needs, and even
when devotion is given to only one, the existence of others is acknowledged. Hindu
worship virtually always involves sculptures and images, to which offerings are made
and rituals are performed.
One God or Many?
Is Hinduism a polytheistic, pantheistic, or monotheistic religion?
Devi: The Mother Goddess
Devi, the Divine Female, is also known as the Mother Goddess.
Ganesha
The beloved elephant-faced deity known as Ganesh or Ganesha clears
away life's obstacles.
Shiva
The "Destroyer" and one of the chief deities of Hinduism. His name
means "Auspicious One."
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Vedic Gods
The ancient Vedas describe a number of deities, most of whom are
personified forces of nature.
Vishnu
Vishnu, the "All-Pervading," is the protector of the world and the
restorer of moral order (dharma).
What are the rituals and practices of Hinduism?
The religious life of many Hindus is focused on devotion to God (perceived as Brahman,
Shiva, Vishnu, or Shakti) or several gods. This devotion usually takes the form of rituals
and practices associated with sculptures and images of gods in home shrines.
More philosophically-minded Hindus ignore the gods altogether and seek Realization of
the Self through intense meditation. Still others focus primarily on fulfilling the social
and moral duties appropriate to their position in life.
These various approaches are regarded as equally valid, and in fact are formally
recognized as three paths (margas) to liberation: bhaktimarga (the path of devotion),
jnanamarga (the path of knowledge or philosophy), and karmamarga (the path of works
and action).
Hindu religious practices center on the importance of fulfilling the duties associated both
with one's social position and one's stage of life. With regard to the latter, traditional
Hindus are expected to pass through four stages (ashramas) over the course of their life:
1.
2.
3.
4.
brahmacharga, which takes place during the school years, is focused on acquiring knowledge and
developing character;
grastha, the middle years, is focused on worldly pursuits and pleasures such as marriage, family
and career;
vanaprastha, when one's children reach adulthood, is a time of increased focus on spiritual things;
and
sanngasu, in the last years of life, one may abandon the world entirely for a life of contemplation.
All stages of life for the Hindu, however, involve religious rituals and practices. Some of
the major Hindu practices are described in the articles below.
19
Ayurveda
Ayurveda is an ancient Hindu system of medicine and healing that has found new
popularity in the west today.
Hatha Yoga
Outside of Hindu culture, the word "yoga" is usually understood to refer to the practice
of meditative movement, or Hatha Yoga. However, Hatha Yoga is only one part of the
Hindu traditions of Yoga and Tantra. It is one of the paths leading to the ultimate goal of
Raja Yoga, or contemplation of the One Reality.
Kundalini Yoga
Kundalini yoga is a tantric form of yoga focused on awakening the kundalini, the latent
psychic energy that lies at the base of the spine, and making it rise through the seven
chakras to the top of the spine.
Namaste Greeting
The gesture (or mudra) of namaste is a simple act made by bringing together both palms
of the hands before the heart, and lightly bowing the head. In the simplest of terms it is
accepted as a humble greeting straight from the heart and reciprocated accordingly.
Puja (Pooja)
Puja is a religious ritual which some Hindus perform every morning after bathing and
dressing but prior to taking any food or drink. Puja is seen as a way of relating humans
to the domain and actions of the divine, and can be performed for anything considered
divine, from Vishnu to a holy tree.
The Sadhu (Holy Man)
Some Hindus choose to leave their homes and dedicate their lives to spiritual disciplines.
They renounce their possessions and devote themselves to a particular god and/or
meditation, yoga and spiritual discussion. These are called sadhus, or holy men.
Temples and Temple Rituals
A guide to Hindu temples: how they are designed and built and the rituals and
ceremonies that take place there.
“Religions and Belief Systems”. Religion Facts. 3February2014< http://www.religionfacts.com/>.
20
BUDDHISM
Buddhism was founded by an Indian prince named Siddharta Gautama around the year
500 BCE. According to tradition, the young prince lived an affluent and sheltered life
until a journey during which he saw an old man, a sick man, a poor man, and a corpse.
Shocked and distressed at the suffering in the world, Gautama left his family to seek
enlightenment through asceticism. But even the most extreme asceticism failed to bring
enlightenment.
Finally, Gautama sat beneath a tree and vowed not to move until he had attained
enlightenment. Days later, he arose as the Buddha - the "enlightened one." He spent the
remaining 45 years of his life teaching the path to liberation from suffering (the dharma)
and establishing a community of monks (the sangha).
Today, there are over 360 million followers of Buddhism. Although virtually extinct in
its birthplace of India, it is prevalent throughout China, Japan and Southeast Asia. In the
20th century, Buddhism expanded its influence to the West and even to western religions.
There are now over one million American Buddhists and even a significant number of
"Jewish Buddhists." Buddhist concepts have also been influential on western society in
general, primarily in the areas of meditation and nonviolence.
Buddhist beliefs vary significantly across various sects and schools, but all share an
admiration for the figure of the Buddha and the goal of ending suffering and the cycle of
rebirth. Theravada Buddhism, prominent in Southeast Asia, is atheistic and philosophical
in nature and focuses on the monastic life and meditation as means to liberation.
Mahayana Buddhism, prominent in China and Japan, incorporates several deities,
celestial beings, and other traditional religious elements. In Mahayana, the path to
liberation may include religious ritual, devotion, meditation, or a combination of these
elements. Zen, Nichiren, Tendai, and Pure Land are the major forms of Mahayana
Buddhism.
21
What is the History of Buddhism?
Life of the Buddha
The details of the Buddha's life are not known for certain, but most scholars are in
agreement that he was an actual historical figure who lived in northern India around the
5th century BCE. The events of his life are recorded in Buddhist tradition and often
lovingly illustrated in Buddhist art.
The First Buddhist Council
After the Buddha's death, his disciple Mahakasyapa took over leadership of the Sangha.
One of Mahakasyapa's first acts as the new Buddhist leader was to convene a council of
500 arhats to collect and preserve the Buddha's teachings.
The Sangha
When Mahakasyapa died shortly after the First Council, Ananda became head of the
sangha. During the 40 years he led the Buddhist monastic order, Buddhism spread
throughout India. The Buddha had directed his disciples to teach "for the welfare of the
many, out of compassion for the world," and this his disciples did.
The Second Buddhist Council
Along with increasing numbers often comes increasing disagreements. Within 100 years
of the Buddha's passing, significant disputes arose, primarily in the areas of monastic
discipline. To deal with these disputes, a Second Council was convened.
Conversion of Emperor Asoka
Around 270 BC, a man named Asoka became emperor of the powerful Mauryan dynasty
in India. Emperor Asoka began his reign by expanding the empire his grandfather had
established. He was very successful, and soon he ruled a sizeable portion of India.
Spread of Buddhism to Southeast Asia
One pair of Asoka's emissaries went to Sri Lanka, an island southeast of the Indian
subcontinent. They were well-received by the local ruler, King Tissa, and Theravada
Buddhism took hold there.
22
Spread of Buddhism to the Hellenistic World
The interaction between Hellenistic Greece and Buddhism started when Alexander the
Great conquered Asia Minor and Central Asia in 334 BCE, going as far as the Indus, thus
establishing direct contact with India, the birthplace of Buddhism
What do Buddhists Believe?
Given the association of Buddhism with the meditating monk, one might well assume
that Buddhism emphasizes practices over beliefs. It is true that right practices are
important in Buddhism, but the faith really centers on correct understanding of human
nature and ultimate reality.
The Buddha, after all, was called the "Enlightened One." After he became enlightened, he
taught that the way to eliminate suffering begins with understanding the true nature of the
world. However, the Buddha considered knowledge important only insofar as it remains
practical. He rejected speculation about such matters as God, the nature of the universe,
and the afterlife, urging his followers to focus instead on the Four Noble Truths by which
they can free themselves from suffering.
Basic Points of Buddhism
In the 2,500 years since the Buddha's enlightenment, Buddhism has spread over many countries,
split into numerous sects, and adopted a wide variety of beliefs, practices, rituals and customs.
However, an essential unity centered around the teachings of the Buddha underlies these
differences.
Is Buddhism Atheistic?
As seen in the Basic Points of Buddhism, one general doctrine agreed upon by Buddhists is: "We
do not believe that this world is created and ruled by a God." However, disbelief in a creator God
does not mean that Buddhism is atheistic.
Buddhas and Deities
In Mahayana Buddhism, the universe is populated with celestial buddhas, bodhisattvas, and deities
that assist and inspire the Buddhist practitioner. Among the most popular are Kuan Yin, the
Medicine Buddha, the Laughing Buddha and the Green and White Taras. These and other
fascinating figures are explored in this section.
Human Nature
In Hinduism, the soul, or atman, is an eternally existing spiritual substance or being and the
abiding self that moves from one body to the next at rebirth. The Buddha rejected this concept.
Purpose of Life
In Buddhism, the purpose of life is to end suffering. The Buddha taught that humans suffer
because we continually strive after things that do not give lasting happiness.
Reincarnation and Afterlife
The Buddha said of death:
Life is a journey.
Death is a return to earth.
The universe is like an inn.
The passing years are like dust.
Regard this phantom world
As a star at dawn, a bubble in a stream,
23
A flash of lightning in a summer cloud,
A flickering lamp - a phantom - and a dream
Introduction to the Beliefs of Buddhism
In the 2,500 years since the Buddha was enlightened under the Bodhi Tree, Buddhism
has spread over many countries, split into numerous sects, and adopted a wide variety of
beliefs, practices, rituals and customs. However, an essential unity centered around the
teachings of the Buddha underlies these differences.
In 1966, a leading monks from both the Theravada and Mahayana traditions met in Sri
Lanka with the goal of bridging the differences between the two groups and identifying
the essential points of agreement. The World Buddhist Sangha Council, as they called
themselves, unanimously approved the following "Basic Points Unifying the
Theravada and Mahayana":
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The Buddha is our only Master.
We take refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha.
We do not believe that this world is created and ruled by a God.
Following the example of the Buddha, who is the embodiment of Great Compassion (mahaakarunaa) and Great Wisdom (mahaa-prajnaa), we consider that the purpose of life is to develop
compassion for all living beings without discrimination and to work for their good, happiness, and
peace; and to develop wisdom leading to the realization of Ultimate Truth.
We accept the Four Noble Truths, nameley Dukkha, the Arising of Dukkha, the Cessation of
Dukkha, and the Path leading to the Cessation of Dukkha; and the universal law of cause and
effect as taught in the pratiitya-samutpaada (Conditioned Genesis or Dependent Origination).
We understand, according to the teaching of the Buddha, that all conditioned things (samskaara)
are impermanent (anitya) and dukkha, and that all conditioned and unconditioned things (dharma)
are without self (anaatma).
We accept the Thirty-seven Qualities conducive to Enlightenment (bodhipaksa-dharma) as
different aspects of the Path taught by the Buddha leading to Enlightenment.
There are three ways of attaining bodhi or Enlightenment, according to the ability and capacity of
each individual: namely as a disciple (sraavaka), as a Pratyeka-Buddha and as a Samyak-samBuddha (perfectly and Fully Enlightened Buddha). We accept it as the highest, noblest, and most
heroic to follow the career of a Bodhisattva and to become a Samyak-sam-Buddha in order to save
others.
We admit that in different countries there are differences with regard to the life of Buddhist
monks, popular Buddhist beliefs and practices, rites and ceremonies, customs and habits. These
external forms and expressions should not be confused with the essential teachings of the Buddha.
Is Buddhism Atheistic?
As seen in the Basic Points of Buddhism, one doctrine agreed upon by all branches of
modern Buddhism is that "this world is not created and ruled by a God."
According to BuddhaNet, a major Buddhist website:
24
There is no almighty God in Buddhism. There is no one to hand out rewards or punishments on a
supposedly Judgement Day. Buddhism is strictly not a religion in the context of being a faith and worship
owing allegiance to a supernatural being.
The Buddha himself rejected metaphysical speculation as a matter of principle, and his
teachings focused entirely on the practical ways to end suffering.
On the other hand, the Buddha did not explicitly rule out the existence of a God or gods,
and very shortly after his death a devotional element formed within Buddhism. Stupas
were built to contain relics of the Buddha and pilgrimmages were made to places where
he had walked.
Soon the idea of past and future Buddhas developed, with Maitreya, the Buddha yet to
come, being especially important. In the Mahayana system, a variety of celestial Buddhas
and bodhisatvas came to be revered and looked to for assistance on the path to
enlightenment. Especially devotional is Pure Land Buddhism, a subdivision of Mahayana
that began in China. Pure Land Buddhists revere and call on the name of the Amitabha
Buddha, who will grant them entrance to the paradisical "Pure Land" after death.
As Buddhism spread into cultures with existing religious beliefs, it incorporated local
deities and religious practices into the Buddhist system. For instance, in China, a popular
boddhisatva became the female deity Kuan-yin, the giver of children.
Finally, Tibetan Buddhist cosmology features a "vast number of divine beings (each with
its own family, consort, and pacific and terrifying aspects), which are considered
symbolic representations of the psychic life by the religiously sophisticated and accepted
as realities by the common people." There are six realms of existence in the Tibetan
cosmology, one of which is the realm of the gods. The gods enjoy the fruits of good
karma in a paradise until their karma runs out and they are reborn in a lower realm. In
fact, gods must be reborn as humans to attain enlightenment.
In view of the above factors, scholars and Buddhists alike tend to describe Buddhism as
atheistic in the sense that it denies an eternal creator God , while recognizing its theistic
and devotional elements. The Encyclopedia Britannica explains,
While the contemplative elite may deny the real existence of gods and demons together with the rest of
phenomenal existence, the majority of Buddhists from the earliest times in India, and in other countries
where Buddhism has spread, have never neglected indigenous religious beliefs.
Do Buddhists Believe in God?
The Buddha's teachings and Theravada Buddhism are essentially atheistic, although
neither deny the existence of beings that might be called "gods." (See Is Buddhism
Atheistic? for more information.)
25
In Mahayana Buddhism, however, the universe is populated with celestial buddhas and
bodhisattvas who are worshipped as gods and goddesses. The historical Buddha is
honored in this way, but most other Buddhist deities are adapted from the cultures
Buddhism has encountered — from the pantheon of Hinduism to the indigenous religions
of Tibet, China and Thailand.
Among the most popular Buddhist deities are Kuan Yin, the Medicine Buddha, the
Laughing Buddha and the Green and White Taras.
Buddhist Views of Human Nature
In Hinduism, the soul, or atman, is an eternally existing spiritual substance or being and
the abiding self that moves from one body to the next at rebirth. The Buddha rejected this
concept. He taught that everything is impermanent (anicca), and this includes everything
that we associate with being human: sensations, feelings, thoughts and consciousness.
This is the doctrine of anatta, "no-soul," a central concept of Buddhism.
Human existence, in the Buddha's view, is nothing more than a composite of five
aggregates (khandas):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Physical forms (rupa)
Feelings or sensations (vedana)
Ideations (sanna)
Mental formations or dispositions (sankhara)
Consciousness (vinnana)
These khandas come together at birth to form a human person. A person is a "self" in that
he or she is a true subject of moral action and karmic accumulation, but not in the sense
that he or she has an enduring or unchanging soul.
The doctrine of anatta, when combined with Buddhist beliefs in reincarnation and karma,
presents an interesting difficulty. If humans have no soul or enduring self, what is it that
reincarnates? The Buddha was characteristically resistant to dwelling on such speculative
matters, and early opponents of Buddhism were quick to point out this apparent
vulnerability in Buddhist thought.
Buddhists explain the difficulty using the analogy of fire: When one candle is used to
light another, the new flame is not the same as the old flame, and yet the first flame
directly causes the second. In the same way, one human life, with its particular
accumulation of karma, gives rise to the next life, even though no permanent soul passes
from one to the other.
26
The Purpose of Life According to Buddhism
One of the most important questions all belief systems seek to address is: What is the
purpose of life? And virtually all religions propose a way of life that will lead to
salvation, liberation, satisfaction, or happiness. Buddhism is no exception.
In Buddhism, the primary purpose of life is to end suffering. The Buddha taught that
humans suffer because we continually strive after things that do not give lasting
happiness. We desperately try to hold on to things - friends, health, material things - that
do not last, and this causes sorrow.
The Buddha did not deny that there are things in life that give joy, but pointed out that
none of them last and our attachment to them only causes more suffering. His teachings
were focused entirely on this problem and its solution.
This is done by recognizing the impermanence of all things and freeing oneself from
attachment to these things. This will lessen suffering and eventually end the cycle of
rebirth. These teachings are expressed most concisely in the Four Noble Truths and the
Noble Eightfold Path, which together form the foundation of belief for all branches of
Buddhism.
The Four Noble Truths
In his first sermon after attaining enlightenment, the Buddha taught the "Four Noble
Truths," which form the foundation of belief for all branches of Buddhism:
1.
2.
3.
4.
All of life is marked by suffering.
Suffering is caused by desire and attachment.
Suffering can be stopped.
The way to end suffering is to follow the Noble Eightfold Path.
The Noble Eightfold Path
According to the fourth Noble Truth, one can permanently escape suffering by following
the Noble Eightfold Path. The word "right" in these eight items designates "true" or
"correct," to distinguish the Buddhist way from others: It is not enough to gain
knowledge; it must be right knowledge.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Right knowledge
Right intention
Right speech
Right action
Right livelihood
Right effort
Right mindfulness
Right concentration
27
In view of both the importance and the difficulty of accomplishing these eight activities
and eliminating suffering, the Buddha and the earliest Buddhist advocated the monastic
life as the surest way to enlightenment. This remains the perspective today in what is
known as Theravada ("Way of the Elders") Buddhism, which predominates in Southeast
Asia.
In Theravada Buddhism, there is certainly room for the laity to participate in Buddhism,
but it is generally thought that they must be reborn as monk before they can attain
enlightenment. Thus the purpose of life for the Buddhist laity is to gain merit (good
karma) by supporting the monks and doing other good deeds, in the hopes that the next
life would be one favorable to gaining enlightenment.
Paths to Enlightenment in Mahayana Buddhism
However, within a few centuries of the Buddha's death, a new perspective on the path to
enlightenment began to develop. This movement called itself Mahayana, "The Greater
Vehicle," because it opened the way to enlightenment to more people. According to
Mahayana Buddhism, even those with families and secular careers could attain
enlightenment and end the cycle of rebirth - they need not hope for rebirth as monks or
nuns in the next life. Mahayana also provided faster routes to enlightenment than
Theravada, making it possible to attain the goal in a single lifetime.
As it spread from India into the north and across Asia, Mahayana Buddhism divided into
several schools, each with a different view on the path to enlightenment. But the common
theme in all forms of Mahayana Buddhism continues to be that just about anyone can
achieve the goal in this life, and there are shortcuts to the austere monastic life prescribed
by the Theravadans.
Among the largest of the Mahayana schools still thriving today are Zen (Ch'an in China),
Pure Land, and Nichiren Buddhism. The first two originated in China before becoming
influential in Japan, and Nichiren originated in Japan. Zen/Ch'an means "Meditation" and
teaches that enlightenment can be achieved by meditation leading to a great moment of
insight. Pure Land is the most devotional branch of Buddhism, and holds that one need
only call upon the name of Amitbha Buddha in faith to be reborn in the paradisiacal
"Pure Land," in which one enjoys a pleasant paradise and attains enlightenment easily.
Nichiren Buddhism centers on the Lotus Sutra, a Mahayana scripture. Nichiren (a 13thcentury Japanese teacher) taught that if one simply recites "Homage to the Lotus Sutra of
the Wonderful Law" (Namu myoho renge kyo) in faith, all one's spiritual and worldly
wishes will be fulfilled.
Paths to Enlightenment in Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhism
Vajrayana is an esoteric form of Buddhism that may have begun as early as the 2nd or
4th century CE in India and Sri Lanka, but is now most dominant in Tibet. Vajrayana
Buddhism emphasizes that all apparent opposites are in fact one, and enlightenment lies
in fully recognizing this fact through contemplation, yoga, and other ritual means. The
28
path to enlightenment is walked with the assistance of a personal deity, who is assigned
by a guru. Special postures, mantras and icons are believed to help the practitioner
identify with this deity and attain enlightenment.
Buddhist Beliefs about the Afterlife
What does Buddhism teach about the afterlife?
The Buddha said of death:
Life is a journey.
Death is a return to earth.
The universe is like an inn.
The passing years are like dust.
Regard this phantom world
As a star at dawn, a bubble in a stream,
A flash of lightning in a summer cloud,
A flickering lamp - a phantom - and a dream.
According to Buddhism, after death one is either reborn into another body (reincarnated)
or enters nirvana. Only Buddhas - those who have attained enlightenment - will achieve
the latter destination.
Reincarnation (Transmigration)
Based on his no-soul (anatta) doctrine, the Buddha described reincarnation, or the taking
on of a new body in the next life, in a different way than the traditional Indian
understanding. He compared it to lighting successive candles using the flame of the
preceding candle. Although each flame is causally connected to the one that came before
it, is it not the same flame. Thus, in Buddhism, reincarnation is usually referred to as
"transmigration."
Nirvana
Nirvana is the state of final liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth. It is also
therefore the end of suffering. The literal meaning of the word is "to extinguish," in the
way that a fire goes out when it runs out of fuel. In the Surangama, the Buddha describes
Nirvana as the place in which
it is recognized that there is nothing but what is seen of the mind itself; where, recognizing the nature of the
self-mind, one no longer cherishes the dualisms of discrimination; where there is no more thirst nor
grasping; where there is no more attachment to external things.
29
But all these descriptions only tell us what is not Nirvana. What is it like? Is it like
heaven, or is it non-existence? The answer is not clear, due in large part to the Buddha's
aversion to metaphysics and speculation. When he was asked such questions, he merely
replied that it was "incomprehensible, indescribable, inconceivable, unutterable."
“Religions and Belief Systems”. Religion Facts. 3February2014< http://www.religionfacts.com/>.
30
CHINESERELIGION
Religion in China
Chinese religion is not an organized, unified system of beliefs and practices. It has no leadership,
headquarters, founder, or denominations. Instead, "Chinese religion" is a term describing the complex
interaction of different religious and philosophical traditions that have been influential in China. Chinese
religion is composed of four main traditions: Chinese folk religion, Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.
The religious outlook of most Chinese people consists of some combination of beliefs and practices from
these four traditions. It is rare for only one to be practiced to the exclusion of the others. Buddhism,
Taoism, and Confucianism are treated in their own sections on ReligionFacts. This section focuses on
Chinese folk or indigenous religion, but reference is also made to the other traditions.
History of Chinese Religion
China is one of the most ancient civilizations on earth, and Chinese religion is one of the
oldest forms of religion. Evidence of burial practices has been dated to as early as 5000
BCE. Today, Chinese religion is a complex mix of Chinese folk religion, Taoism,
Buddhism, Confucianism and Communist anti-religious sentiment. This article traces the
history of Chinese religion, from the Neolithic Era, through the many powerful Chinese
dynasties, to the present-day People's Republic of China.
Neolithic China
Archaeological evidence from Neolithic China shows a remarkable amount of care and
ritual with regard to burial practices. Characteristics of 5th millennium BCE burial
practices include:




consistency of orientation and posture - the dead of the northwest were given a westerly
orientation and those of the east an easterly one.
segregation of the dead into what appear to be kinship groupings
graveside ritual offerings of liquids, pig skulls, and pig jaws
collective secondary burial, in which the bones of up to 70 or 80 corpses were stripped of their
flesh and reburied together
There is evidence of persons who acted as divination specialists as early as the 4th
millennium BCE, and the 3rd millennium BCE saw the rise of lavish expenditures on
tomb ramps and coffin chambers. There is occasional evidence of human sacrifice in the
31
4th and 3rd millennia, primarily in the form of a dependent accompanying his or her
superior in death. Early forms of ancestor worship also appear during this period.
The 3rd and 2nd millennia saw the rise of bronze casting, as well as increased warfare,
increased wealth, status distinctions, private property, and religious and administrative
hierarchies.
Shang Dynasty (1600 BC - 1046 BCE)
In the Shang Dynasty, the first historical Chinese dynasty, divination played a major role.
Encyclopedia Britannica describes early Chinese
divination practices as follows:
Cattle scapulae or turtle plastrons, in a refinement of
Neolithic practice, were first planed and bored with
hollow depressions to which an intense heat source was
then applied. The resulting T-shaped stress cracks were
interpreted as lucky or unlucky. After the prognostication
had been made, the day, the name of the presiding
diviner (some 120 are known), the subject of the charge,
the prognostication, and the result might be carved into
the surface of the bone. Among the topics divined were sacrifices, campaigns, hunts, the
good fortune of the 10-day week or of the night or day, weather, harvests, sickness,
childbearing, dreams, settlement building, the issuing of orders, tribute, divine assistance,
and prayers to various spirits.
Divination practices evolved somewhat over the course of the Shang dynasty. By the
reigns of the last two Shang kings, Ti-i and Ti-hsin (c. 1100 to 1045 BC), divination had
become considerably simplified: predictions were uniformly optimistic, and divination
topics were limited mainly to the sacrificial schedule, the coming 10 days, the coming
night, and hunting.
Ch'ou Dynasty (1111–255 BCE)
During the Ch'ou Dynasty, the various regions of China began to be unified into a single
civilization. Likewise, religious ideas from different regions interacted and began to
assimilate. Although some local differences remained, a general Chinese pantheon
developed in which each god had a specific function. This reflected the unified Chinese
empire with its bureaucratic society.
The Ch'ou Dynasty also included the teachings of Confucius and Mo-tzu, who
emphasized virtue, humanity, the importance of social relationships and a just ruler.
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Ch'in Dynasty (221-206 BCE)
During the Ch'in Empire, the feudal system was abolished
completely and China was divided into 40 prefectures. A network of
highways was built for the emperor's troops, and several hundred
thousand workers were enlisted to connect and strengthen the walls
on the northern border of China. The resulting wall (now known as
the Great Wall of China) extended from Gulf of Chihli westward
across the pastureland of what is today Inner Mongolia and through
the fertile loop of the Huang Ho to the edge of Tibet. The emperor
also simplified and unified and writing system and codified the law.
The Ch'in emperor, Shih huang-ti, is infamous for his suppression of intellectual ideas,
censorship of books, and the deaths of many Chinese in the service of his grand projects.
He was also terribly afraid of death. He made every effort to achieve immortality: deities
were continually propitiated and messengers were dispatched to search for the elixir of
life. Shih huang-ti died in 210 or 209 BCE while on a tour of the empire. Excavation of
his tomb, near modern Sian (ancient Ch'ang-an), revealed more than 6,000 life-sized
statues of soldiers keeping him company.
Han Dynasty (206/202 BCE-220 CE)
The Han Dynasty was the first dynasty to embrace Confucianism, which became the
ideological underpinning of all regimes until the end of imperial China. Knowledge of the
Five Classics of Confucius became necessary to hold any important post. The emperors
of the Han Dynasty also supported and encouraged the development of art, science,
technology, literature and religion. It was a period of great
prosperity.
During the Han Dynasty, emperors were seen as ruling
under the Mandate of Heaven. They also had the important
responsibility of securing spiritual blessings for the Chinese
people. In earlier periods, one of the nine ministries of state
took care of this duty, but later the emperor came to be more
directly involved in official worship and ritual.
The rituals of the state religion were initially addressed to the Five Elements (fire, water,
earth, wood, and metal), the Supreme Unity, and the Lord of the Soil, but in 31 BCE
these cults were replaced by sacrifices dedicated to Heaven and Earth. The sites of
worship were moved to the outskirts of Ch'ang-an and a new series of altars and shrines
was inaugurated. The Han emperor sometimes paid his respects to supreme powers and
reported on the state of the dynasty at the summit of Mt. T'ai. Emperor Wu-ti's desire for
immortality for himself and deceased loved ones led him to employ a number of
intermediaries who claimed to be able to make contact with the world of the immortals. A
few philosophers, such as Wang Ch'ung (27–c. 100 CE), reacted against these beliefs by
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propounding a rational explanation of the universe, but their skepticism received little
support.
Sometime during the 1st century CE Buddhism reached China, probably by travelers who
had taken the Silk Road from north India. The establishment of Buddhist foundations in
China and the first official patronage of the faith followed shortly. From the 2nd century
CE there arose a variety of beliefs, practices, and disciplines that gave rise to alchemy,
scientific experiment and the Taoist religion.
Three Kingdoms (220-263 CE)
The Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in 184, ushering in an era of warlords. The
period from 190 to 220 was marked by chaotic infighting between warlords in various
parts of China. The middle part of the period, from 220 and 263, was marked by a more
militarily stable arrangement between three rival states, Wei, Han, and Wu. The later part
of this period was marked by the destruction of Shu by Wei (263), the overthrow of Wei
by the Jin Dynasty (265), and the destruction of
Wu by Jin (280).
The term "Three Kingdoms" itself is somewhat
of a mistranslation, since each state was
eventually headed by an Emperor who claimed
legitimate succession from the Han Dynasty, not
by kings, so "Three Empires" would be more
factually accurate. Nevertheless the term has
become standard among sinologists and will be
used in this article.
Although relatively short, this historical period
has been greatly romanticized in the cultures of
China, Japan, Korea and throughout Southeast
Asia. It has been celebrated and popularized in
operas, folk stories, novels and in more recent times, films, television serials, and
computer games. The best known of these is undoubtedly the Romance of the Three
Kingdoms, a fictional account of the period which draws heavily on history. The
authoritative historical record of the era is Chen Shou's Sanguo Zhi, along with Pei
Songzhi's later annotations of the text.
The Three Kingdoms period is also one of the bloodiest period in the history of China. A
population census in late Eastern Han dynasty reported a population of approximately 56
million, while a population census in early Western Jin dynasty (after Jin re-unified
China) reported a population of approximately 16 million.
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Period of Many Dynasties and New Buddhist Schools (263618 CE)
Though these three kingdoms were reunited temporarily in 280 by the (Western) Jin
dynasty, the contemporary non-Han Chinese (Wu Hu) ethnic groups ravaged the country
in the early 4th century and provoked large-scale Han Chinese migrations to south of the
Chang Jiang. In 303 the Di people rebelled and later captured Chengdu. Under Liu Yuan
the Xiongnu rebelled near today's Linfen County; his successor Liu Cong captured and
executed the last two Western Jin emperors. More than Sixteen states were established by
these ethnic groups. The chaotic north was temporarily unified by Fu Jian who was
defeated at the Battle of Feishui when he attempted to invade South China. Later on,
Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei reunified north China again, marking the beginning of
the Northern Dynasties, a sequence of local regimes ruling over regions north of Chang
Jiang.
Along with the refugees from the North, Emperor Yuan of Jin China reinstated the Jin
regime at Nanjing in the south; from this came the sequence of Southern dynasties of
Song, Qi, Liang and Chen, which all had their capitals at Jiankang (near today's Nanjing).
As China was ruled by two independent dynasties, one in the south and the other in the
north, this is called the era of Southern and Northern Dynasties. The short-lived Sui
Dynasty managed to reunite the country in 589 after almost 300 years of disjunction.
This period of almost continuous political upheaval was an important period of religious
development. In the sixth century, new schools of Chinese Buddhism sought to adapt
Buddhism to Chinese ways of thinking. The T'ien-t'ai school was a syncretistic
movement based on the Lotus Sutra. The southern Ch'an (Zen) school was heavily
influenced by Taoism. Pure Land Buddhism also gained popularity.
Tang Dynasty (618-907)
The Tang dynasty, with its capital at Chang'an (modern day suburb of Xi'an), the most
populous city in the world at the time, is regarded by historians as a high point in Chinese
civilization — equal, or even superior, to the Han period. Its territory, acquired through
the military exploits of its early rulers, was greater than that of the Han.
Stimulated by contact with India and the Middle East, the empire saw a flowering of
creativity in many fields. The Tang period was the golden age of literature and art. A
government system supported by a large class of Confucian literati selected through civil
service examinations was perfected under Tang rule. From Tang times until the closing
days of the Qing empire in 1911, scholar officials functioned often as intermediaries
between the grassroots level and the government.
Although the royal family officially supported Taoism because they claimed to be
descended from Lao-Tzu, Buddhism enjoyed great favor and imperial patronage
throughout the period. In 629, the Chinese monk and scholar Hsüan-tsang traveled to
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India. He returned in 645 and carefully translated many Sanskrit Buddhist texts into
Chinese. The T'ien-t'ai, Ch'an and Pure Land schools of Buddhism continued to rise in
popularity. Many monasteries and temples were built, both state-sponsored and large and
local and small. The larger monasteries acquired wealth and land from those taking
monastic vows and from gifts of pious laymen.
Buddhism suffered a great blow with the ascension of emperor Wu-tsung to the throne. A
fanatical Taoism, Wu-tsung persecuted Buddhism between 843 and 845 for a
combination of religious and economical reasons. China was suffering from great
financial hardship and seizing the lands and holdings of the many Buddhist monasteries
was a quick way of increasing the empire's holdings. 40,000 shrines and temples were
closed and 260,000 monks and nuns were returned to lay life. The suppression was shortlived, but Buddhism in China would never be the same.
Sung Dynasty (960-1279)
After a brief period of instability known as the "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms," the
Sung Dynasty was established in China. The founders of the Sung dynasty built an
effective centralized bureaucracy staffed with civilian scholar-officials. Regional military
governors and their supporters were replaced by centrally appointed officials. This
system of civilian rule led to a greater concentration of power in the emperor and his
palace bureaucracy than had been achieved in the previous
dynasties.
The Sung dynasty is notable for the development of cities
not only for administrative purposes but also as centers of
trade, industry, and maritime commerce. The landed
scholar-officials, sometimes collectively referred to as the
gentry, lived in the provincial centers alongside the
shopkeepers, artisans, and merchants. A new group of
wealthy commoners - the mercantile class - arose as printing
and education spread, private trade grew, and a market
economy began to link the coastal provinces and the
interior. Landholding and government employment were no longer the only means of
gaining wealth and prestige.
Culturally, the Sung refined many of the developments of the previous centuries.
Included in these refinements were not only the Tang ideal of the universal man, who
combined the qualities of scholar, poet, painter, and statesman, but also historical
writings, painting, calligraphy, and hard-glazed porcelain. Sung intellectuals sought
answers to all philosophical and political questions in the Confucian Classics. This
renewed interest in the Confucian ideals and society of ancient times coincided with the
decline of Buddhism, which the Chinese regarded as foreign and offering few practical
guidelines for the solution of political and other mundane problems.
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The Sung Neo-Confucian philosophers, finding a certain purity in the originality of the
ancient classical texts, wrote commentaries on them. The most influential of these
philosophers was Zhu Xi (1130-1200), whose synthesis of Confucian thought and
Buddhist, Taoist, and other ideas became the official imperial ideology from late Sung
times to the late 19th century. As incorporated into the examination system, Zhu Xi's
philosophy evolved into a rigid official creed, which stressed the one-sided obligations of
obedience and compliance of subject to ruler, child to father, wife to husband, and
younger brother to elder brother. The effect was to inhibit the societal development of
pre-modern China, resulting both in many generations of political, social, and spiritual
stability and in a slowness of cultural and institutional change up to the 19th century.
Neo-Confucian doctrines also came to play the dominant role in the intellectual life of
Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.
Yuan/Mongol Dynasty (1271-1368)
Kublai Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, became the supreme leader of all Mongol
tribes in 1260. He began his reign with great aspirations and self-confidence — in 1264
he moved the capital of the expansive Mongol Empire to Beijing, in recently acquired
North China. He began his drive against the Southern Song, establishing, in 1271 —
eight years prior to Southern conquest — the first alien dynasty to rule all China: the
Yuan. The creation of a dynasty prior to conquest, keeping in mind that Dynasty was not
a Mongol concept, shows political and military tact. The name was significantly in
Chinese — neither his native tongue, nor a language he spoke at all. In 1279, Guangzhou
fell into Mongol hands, which marks the end of the Southern Song and the onset of China
under the Mongols.
The Mongols did not attempt to impose their religion (which consisted of a cult of
Heaven and nature and shamanistic practices) on the Chinese people. The existing
religions in China thus enjoyed comparative freedom under the foreign rulers. The
Mongol rulers referred to the "three teachings" of the Chinese people: Taoism, Buddhism
and Confucianism.
In 1223 Genghis Khan granted to the Taoist leader Ch'ang-ch'un and his followers full
exemption from taxes and other duties demanded by the government (this was later
extended to all clergies, including Buddhist). Imperial orders also outlawed some
apocryphal Taoist texts, in which Buddhism was presented as a branch of Taoism.
However, Buddhism was also attractive to the Mongols. Although turned off by the high
intellectualism of the Ch'an school, the Mongols were attracted to the more magical and
symbolic practices of Tibetan Buddhism. Kublai Khan appointed a young Tibetan lama
as Imperial teacher (ti-shih); he became the head of Buddhism in all Mongol dominions,
including China. In 1284, a special government agency was founded to deal with
Buddhist and Tibetan affairs. This agency caused great resentment amongst the
population for its brutal and avaricious procedures and the arrogance of the Tibetan
lamas. The Chinese elite was especially shocked when Tibetan clergy introduced the
court to sexual rites.
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Although Tibetan Buddhism was favored under the Mongol Dynasty, Chinese Buddhism
generally suffered during this period. The financial exemptions for clergy led many to
leave society and join monasteries for purely utilitarian reasons, which had a negative
impact on both society and Buddhism. In about 1300 the number of monks throughout
China was estimated at 500,000, and was probably much greater during the last decades
of Mongol rule. Monks played a great role in the rebellions to which the Yüan Empire
eventually succumbed, and the first Ming emperor was a former monk.
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
Among the populace there were strong feelings against the rule of "the foreigners," which
finally led to a peasant revolt that pushed the Yuan dynasty back to the Mongolian
steppes and established the Ming Dynasty in 1368. This dynasty
began as a time of renewed cultural blossom, with Chinese
merchants exploring all of the Indian Ocean and Chinese art
(especially the porcelain industry) reaching unprecedented heights.
Under Ming rule, a vast navy and army was built, with four masted
ships displacing 1,500 tons and a standing army of one million
troops. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced in North
China, and many books were printed using movable type. Some
historians argue that Early Ming China was the most advanced
nation on Earth at the time.
By the Ming period, Taoism and Buddhism had become poorly
organized popular religions. What little organization they had was controlled by the state.
The state continued to support Chu Hsi thought and enforced philosophical uniformity. In
response, new blends of Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist elements appeared in a
sequence of efforts to find ways of personal self-realization through contemplative and
mystical means. The 16 th century saw the rise of many private academies and
widespread philosophical discussions and conflicts. The search for personal fulfillment
only intensified with the collapse of the empire.
Ch'ing Dynasty (1644-1912)
The Ch'ing Dynasty was founded not by the Han Chinese people who form the
overwhelming majority of the population of China proper, but by the Manchus, a seminomadic people not even known by that name when they first rose to prominence in what
is now northeastern China. Taking advantage of the political instability and popular
rebellions convulsing the Ming dynasty, the highly organized military forces of the
Manchus swept into the Ming capital of Beijing in 1644, and there remained until the
Ch'ing dynasty was overthrown in a revolution in 1911, with the last emperor abdicating
early in 1912.
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The 268 years of Ch'ing dynasty China saw glorious successes,
humiliating defeats, and profound changes to virtually all aspects
of life. Today's China has in many ways been shaped by these
experiences. The consolidation of Ch'ing power was
accompanied by territorial expansion, and the borders of modern
China largely reflect successful Ch'ing military campaigns. The
incorporation of new lands and peoples required careful
handling, and Manchu experience of nomadic culture and a willingness to adopt different
postures toward different groups such as Mongols and Tibetans enhanced Ch'ing
diplomatic effectiveness.
Many great works of art and literature originated during the period and projects were
undertaken to preserve important cultural texts. The novel form became widely read and
one of China's most famous novels, Dream of the Red Chamber, was written in the mideighteenth century.
Republic of China (1912-1945)
The Republic of China succeeded the Ch'ing Dynasty. It ruled mainland China from 1912
to 1949 and has ruled Taiwan (along with several islands of Fujian) since 1945.
Failure of reform from the top and the fiasco of the Boxer Rebellion
convinced many Chinese that the only real solution lay in outright
revolution, in sweeping away the old order and erecting a new one
patterned preferably after the example of Japan. The revolutionary leader
was Sun Yat-sen, a republican and anti-Qing activist who became
increasingly popular among the overseas Chinese and Chinese students
abroad, especially in Japan. In 1905 Sun founded the Tongmeng Hui
(United League) in Tokyo with Huang Xing, a popular leader of the Chinese
revolutionary movement in Japan, as his deputy. This movement, generously supported
by overseas Chinese funds, also gained political support with regional military officers
and some of the reformers who had fled China after the Hundred Days' Reform.
Sun's political philosophy was conceptualized in 1897, first enunciated in Tokyo in 1905,
and modified through the early 1920s. It centered on the Three Principles of the People
(san min zhuyi): "nationalism, democracy, and people's livelihood." The principle of
nationalism called for overthrowing the Manchus and ending foreign hegemony over
China. The second principle, democracy, was used to describe Sun's goal of a popularly
elected republican form of government. People's livelihood, often referred to as
socialism, was aimed at helping the common people through regulation of the ownership
of the means of production and land.
The republican revolution broke out on October 10, 1911, in Wuchang, the capital of
Hubei Province, among discontented modernized army units whose anti-Qing plot had
been uncovered. This would be known as the Wuchang Uprising, which is celebrated as
Double Tenth Day in Taiwan. It had been preceded by numerous abortive uprisings and
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organized protests inside China. The revolt quickly spread to neighboring cities, and
Tongmeng Hui members throughout the country rose in immediate support of the
Wuchang revolutionary forces. By late November, fifteen of the twenty-four provinces
had declared their independence of the Qing empire. A month later, Sun Yat-sen returned
to China from the United States, where he had been raising funds among overseas
Chinese and American sympathizers.
On January 1, 1912, Sun officially declared the Republic of China and was inaugurated in
Nanjing as the first provisional president.
Educational reforms in the early republican period allowed thousands of Chinese to study
in Japan, Europe and the United States. Taking influential positions upon their return to
China, such foreign-educated Chinese were a modernizing force in society, at least in the
cities. However, the rural areas remained largely unchanged.
People's Republic of China
The People's Republic of China was proclaimed in the aftermath of the Communist
Party's triumph in the Chinese Civil War by Mao Zedong on October 1, 1949.
For much of its early history, the People's Republic of China maintained a hostile attitude
toward religion which was seen as emblematic of feudalism and foreign colonialism.
Houses of worship, including temples, mosques, and churches, were converted into nonreligious buildings for secular use. In the early years of the People's Republic, religious
belief or practice was often discouraged because it was regarded by the government as
backwards and superstitious and because some Communist leaders, ranging from
Vladimir Lenin to Mao Zedong, had been critical of religious institutions. During the
Cultural Revolution, religion was condemned as feudalistic and thousands of religious
buildings were looted and destroyed.
This attitude, however, relaxed considerably in the late 1970s, with the end of the
Cultural Revolution. The 1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China guarantees
freedom of religion with a number of restrictions. In practice, the Communist Party of
China will react harshly against groups such as Falun Gong which it perceives as
challenging its authority while in general ignoring groups that are not seen as challenging
the state. Since the mid-1990s there has been a massive program to rebuild Buddhist
temples that were destroyed in the Cultural Revolution.
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Chinese Religious Beliefs
Chinese religious beliefs are wide-ranging and eclectic, deriving from several religious
traditions (Chinese folk religion, Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism). But several
religious concepts are characteristic of general Chinese religious thought.
Chinese religion is generally dualistic, emphasizing the two opposed and complimentary
principles of the universe: yin and yang. But the yin and yang are the double
manifestation of the single, eternal cosmic principal: the Tao. Also important is the
concept of heaven (T'ien), which is sometimes described in terms of an impersonal power
or fate, other times as a personal deity, and can also be equated with the Tao.
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Afterlife
Body and Soul
Ch'i
Buddhist Deities
Folk Deities
Ghosts and Spirits
Heaven
Tao
Taoist Deities
Yin and Yang
Is there an afterlife in Chinese Religion?
The Chinese conception of the afterlife is based on a combination of Chinese folk
religions, Taoism and Mahayana Buddhism.
At the moment of death, Chinese believe one's spirit is taken by messengers to the god of
walls and moats, Ch'eng Huang, who conducts a kind of preliminary hearing. Those
found virtuous may go directly to one of the Buddhist paradises, to the dwelling place of
the Taoist immortals, or the tenth court of hell for immediate rebirth.
After 49 days, sinners descend to hell, located at the base of the mythical Mount Meru.
There they undergo a fixed period of punishment in one or more levels of hell. The
duration of this punishment may be reduced by the intercession of the merciful Ti-ts'ang.
When the punishment is complete, the souls in hell drink an elixir of oblivion in
preparation for their next reincarnation.
They then climb on the wheel of transmigration, which takes them to their next
reincarnation, or, in an alternative account, they are thrown off the bridge of pain into a
river that sweeps them off to their next life.
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Human Nature in Chinese Religion
Does Chinese Religion believe in a soul?
In Chinese thinking, everything that exists flows out of the Tao, and human beings are
simply a tiny component of the Tao.
The ancient Chinese believed in a dual soul. The lower soul of the senses disappears with
death, but the rational soul (hun) survives death and is the object of ancestor worship.
Perhaps the most important Chinese concept related to the body and soul is the idea of
ch'i. At its simplest, ch'i means breath, air or vapor, but in Chinese religious belief it is
life energy or life-force.
It is believed that every person is allotted a specified amount of ch'i and he or she must
strengthen, control and increase it in order to live a long life. Many Taoist exercises focus
on regulation and increase of one's ch'i. In the west, the most well-known example of
such a practice is T'ai chi.
Ch'i (Qi)
What is Chi?
Ch'i (also spelled Chi or Qi) is a fundamental concept in Chinese philosophy and
culture. Found in Chinese traditional religion but especially Taoism, Ch'i literally means
"air" or "breath," but as a concept it refers to the energy flow or life force that is said to
pervade all things.
The nature of ch'i has always been a matter of debate in Chinese thinking. Some believe
ch'i is a separate force from the physical world, while others think ch'i comes from
physical matter. Still others, especially Chinese Buddhists and Taoists, hold that matter
arises from ch'i.
The quality, quantity and balance of Ch'i is believed to be essential to maintaining health
and achieving a long life. One author explains it this way:
"Qi is the basic material of all that exists. It animates life and furnishes functional power of events. Qi is the
root of the human body; its quality and movement determine human health. There is a normal or healthy
amount of qi in every person, and health manifests in its balance and harmony, its moderation and
smoothness of flow." -- Livia Kohn, Health and Long Life: The Chinese Way
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In addition to living a healthy life (both physically and psychologically), Ch'i can be
regulated through practices like breath control, Ta'i Chi, massage and acupuncture.
Nearly all techniques in traditional Chinese medicine are based on the concept of Ch'i.
Breath control is considered especially fundamental to balancing the levels of Ch'i in
one's body. Controlled and meditative breathing, called hsing-ch'i, allows ch'i to
permeate the entire body by imagining the breath as a visible current moving through the
body. Another type of breathing exercise, t'ai-hsi, attempts to revert one's breathing to
that of an fetus in the womb. This is considered especially powerful for longevity and
immortality (especially in Taoism).
The traditional Chinese art of placement and arrangement of space called Feng Shui is
also based on the flow of ch'i, as well as the five elements, yin and yang and other
factors. The retention or dissipation of ch'i is believed to affect the health, wealth, energy
level, luck and many other aspects of the occupants of the space. Color, shape and the
physical location of each item in a space affects the flow of ch'i by slowing it down,
redirecting it or accelerating it, which directly affects the ch'i of the occupants.
Chinese Buddhist Deities
Chinese Buddhism has many beliefs in common with other forms of Mahayana
Buddhism, including many of the same bodhisattvas and other religious figures.
However, the following Buddhist deities are especially (in some cases, exclusively)
popular in China:
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Kuan-Yin - Chinese and female form of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara
Jade Maiden – Acolyte of Kuan Yin
Golden Youth – Acolyte of Kuan Yin
Kuan-Ti (Sangharama) - Protector of Buddhism
Wei-To (Skanda) - Protector of the Dharma
Four Guardian Kings (Si-Ta-Tien-Wang)
o Mo-Li Ching: Guardian of East - holds a magical mandolin or p'i-pa
o Mo-Li Hai: Guardian of West - shown with the magic dragon or mystical
snake
o Mo-Li Shou: Guardian of North - holds an umbrella as protection against
thunderous storms).
o Mo-Li Hung: Guardian of South - with ferocious expression, and holding
a precious sword
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Chinese Folk Deities
One common type of Chinese deity is the "place god" or T'u-ti (Pinyin: Tudi). The
primary characteristic of a place god is the limitation of his jurisdiction to a specific
location, like a bridge, home, street, or field. A T'u-ti is always subject to the Ch'eng
Huang, the spiritual magistrate of the city.
A T'u-ti is often a deified historical person who had assisted a specific community during
his lifetime. It is believed that if the person is deified and sacrificed to, he will be moved
to continue his assistance from the spirit world. If misfortunes occur in a location
dedicated to a T'u-ti, the T'u-ti is believed to have lost interest and a new patron is
chosen.
Ghosts, Spirits and Demons
Spirits in Chinese Religion
Burning ghost money on the streets of Taiwan. Photo: Arion Potts.
Ghost money, which is burned as offerings to the
spirits of the dead. Photo: Kevsunblush.
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In Chinese thought, the world is populated by a vast number of spirits, both good and
evil. Such spirits include nature demons (kuei-shen), evil spirits or devils (oni), and
ghosts (kui).
Evil spirits are believed to avoid light, so many rituals involving fire and light have
developed, such as the use of bonfires, firecrackers, and torches. Evil spirits are also
traditionally believed to travel in straight lines, which explains many curvy roads
throughout China.
But not all spirits are evil — some are just unhappy. As evidenced by the practice of
ancestor worship, most Chinese people believe the souls of the deceased endure after
death and must be kept happy by offerings and honor.
If a spirit is not kept happy, perhaps because it had a bad death, an improper burial or has
no descendents to perform the proper rituals, it becomes a ghost (sometimes called a
"hungry ghost," a term with Buddhist origins). Ghosts may attack human beings to
prompt them to meet the ghosts' needs or at least to draw attention to their plight.
Ghosts receive the most attentions during Ghost Month, the seventh month in the Chinese
lunar year, and especially during the Ghost Festival on the fiftteenth day.
In mainland China, belief in ghosts and evil spirits is declining under the influence of
atheistic Communism. But in Taiwan, which split from China in 1949, the vast majority
of the population (perhaps as much as 90%) believes in ghosts. Late-night television is
filled with video of haunted houses and ghost-busting and afterlife experts make a good
business of advising distressed clients on how to appease their angry ancestors.
The Chinese Doctrine of "Heaven"
Is there a heaven is Chinese Religion?
The idea of Heaven (T'ien) plays a prominent role in indigenous Chinese religion. The
term can refer to a god, an impersonal power, or both. The concept is not well-defined,
and religious scholars have had a difficult time deciding whether T'ien was believed to be
a force like fate or a personal deity. It is also unclear whether the ancient Chinese
believed T'ien responded to human supplication or simply worked in accordance with the
principles of T'ien.
T'ien is closely associated with Shang-ti (Supreme Ruler), and the terms are sometimes
used interchangeably. It appears that T'ien originally referred to the sky and Shang-ti to
the deity who lived there, but T'ien came to be considered a divine power as well. Shangti was the supreme god of the Shang dynasty (16 th-11 th cent. BCE), and scholars think
Shang-ti was assimilated into T'ien under the succeeding Chou dynasty (1111–255 BC).
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In the early Chou, T'ien was an anthropomorphic deity, but later descriptions are more
impersonal and more like nature or fate. However they were understood, Shang-ti and
T'ien were believed to have power over fertility of both people and crops.
Perhaps the most important consequence of the Chinese idea of heaven is the concept of
the Mandate of Heaven (t'ien-ming). According to this concept, rulers governed by divine
permission and based on the ruler's virtue, not by right. Importantly, this permission was
regarded as revocable if the ruler was not virtuous enough. Social and political unrest
were traditionally taken as signs that the Mandate of Heaven had been revoked, and it
was then permissible to overthrow those in power and replace them with the succeeding
dynasty.
The Tao
What is the Tao?
The Tao is the central principle of Taoism and is highly influential throughout Chinese
thought. It is the ultimate reality and the eternal principle. It has no characteristics, but
contains within it all potentiality and all opposites. Thus yin and yang, yu and wu (being
and not-being), and all other dual realities exist within the Tao.
Taoist Deities
Traditional/Folk Deities
One common type of Chinese deity is the "place god" or T'u-ti (Pinyin: Tudi). The
primary characteristic of a place god is the limitation of his jurisdiction to a specific
location, like a bridge, home, street, or field. A T'u-ti is always subject to the Ch'eng
Huang, the spiritual magistrate of the city.
A T'u-ti is often a deified historical person who had assisted a specific community during
his lifetime. It is believed that if the person is deified and sacrificed to, he will be moved
to continue his assistance from the spirit world. If misfortunes occur in a location
dedicated to a T'u-ti, the T'u-ti is believed to have lost interest and a new patron is
chosen.

"T'u-ti." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2005. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium
Service. 18 Jan. 2005 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9073651>.
Ghosts and Spirits
In Chinese thought, the world is populated by a vast number of spirits, both good and
evil. Such spirits include nature demons (kuei-shen), goblins, fairies and ghosts. Because
46
demons are believed to avoid light, many rituals involving fire and light have developed,
such as bonfires, firecrackers, and torches.
Body and Soul
The ancient Chinese believed in a dual soul. The lower, sensitive soul disappears with
death, but the rational soul (hun) survives death and is the object of ancestor worship.
Perhaps the most important Chinese concept related to the body and soul is the idea of
ch'i. At its simplest, ch'i means breath, air or vapor, but in Chinese religious belief it is
life energy or life-force. It is believed that every person is allotted a specified amount of
ch'i and he or she must strengthen, control and increase it in order to live a long life.
Many Taoist exercises focus on regulation and increase of one's ch'i. In the west, the most
well-known example of such a practice is T'ai chi.
Afterlife
The Chinese conception of the afterlife is based on a combination of Chinese folk
religions, Taoism and Mahayana Buddhism.
At the moment of death, it is believed that one's spirit is taken by messengers to the god
of walls and moats, Ch'eng Huang, who conducts a kind of preliminary hearing. Those
found virtuous may go directly to one of the Buddhist paradises, to the dwelling place of
the Taoist immortals, or the tenth court of hell for immediate rebirth.
After 49 days, sinners descend to hell, located at the base of Mount Meru. There they
undergo a fixed period of punishment in one or more levels of hell. The duration of this
punishment may be reduced by the intercession of the merciful Ti-ts'ang. When the
punishment is complete, the souls in hell drink an elixir of oblivion in preparation for
their next reincarnation. They then climb on the wheel of transmigration, which takes
them to their next reincarnation, or, in an alternative account, they are thrown off the
bridge of pain into a river that sweeps them off to their next life.
Yin and Yang
What is Yin and Yang?
In Chinese and other Eastern thought, yin and yang are the two opposing
and complementary forces that make up all phenomena of life. Both
proceed from the Supreme Ultimate and together they represent the process
of the universe and all that is in it.
47
According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, "The significance of yin-yang through the
centuries has permeated every aspect of Chinese thought, influencing astrology,
divination, medicine, art, and government."
Yin has the following characteristics, representations and symbols:
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earth
female
dark
passive
absorbing
even numbers
valleys and streams
the tiger
the color orange
a broken line
Yang has the following opposite characteristics, representations and symbols:
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heaven
male
light
active
penetrating
odd numbers
mountains
the dragon
the color azure
an unbroken line
The concept of the yin-yang is very ancient, and its precise origins are unknown. In the
third century BCE, it formed the basis for an entire school of cosmology, the Yin Yang
School.
Chinese Religious Practices
This section explores the traditional rituals and practices of Chinese religion, many of
which are very ancient. Chinese religious rituals are especially based in Chinese folk
religion and Confucianism but are influenced by Taoism and Buddhism as well.

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Ancestor Worship
Prayer
Longevity Practices
Divination, Prophecy and Astrology
48
Chinese Ancestor Worship
What is Ancestor Worship?
Ancestor painting, Qing Dynasty
"The Chinese have always been interested in their past -- worship of ancestors is worship
of origins." (Heinz 1999:225)
Ancestor worship (also called ancestor veneration) is a ritual practice that is based on
the belief that deceased family members have a continued existence, take an interest in
the affairs of the world, and possess the ability to influence the fortune of the living.
Early forms of ancestor worship were deeply rooted and extensively developed by the
Late Neolithic Period in China. The goal of ancestor worship is to ensure the ancestors'
continued well-being and positive disposition towards the living and sometimes to ask for
special favors or assistance. The social or nonreligious function of ancestor worship is "to
cultivate kinship values like filial piety, family loyalty, and continuity of the family
lineage." (Yang 1957:278)
Ancestor Worship: Funerals, the Mourning Period and the
Home Altar
Rituals of ancestor worship most commonly consist of offerings to the deceased to
provide for their welfare in the afterlife, which is envisioned as being similar to the
earthly life. Ancestor worship begins at the deceased kin's funeral, at which necessities
like a toothbrush, comb, towel, shoes, water, or even a computer are placed in the coffin
or burned as a sacrifice.
49
After the funeral, daily or twice-daily offerings are made to ensure the family member
gets a good start in the afterlife. Necessities and luxuries, like the deceased's favorite
foods, wine, and small sums of money, are placed on the altar in bowls or burned in
front of the altar. The money is usually symbolic pieces of paper called "spirit money,"
not real bills. Fruits and vegetables are the preferred foods for offerings; meats are
avoided because of their association with killing. Statues representing servants or other
necessities for the afterlife are also placed on or near the altar. Family members also bow
in respect before the altar.
After a family member's funeral, Chinese families set up a home altar for the purpose of
ancestor worship. The altar normally include a portrait or photograph of the ancestor, a
commemorative plaque and cups for offerings. Altars are usually taken down after 49
days, the period during which the deceased is believed to be undergoing judgment. This
belief is influenced by the Mahayana Buddhist idea of the Bardo, an intermediate period
between death and rebirth. After the 49-day period, the deceased is worshipped along
with all the other ancestors of the family.
Regular Ancestor Worship
After the home altar is taken down, the ancestors are believed to dwell in commemorative
tablets. Ancestral tablets are pieces of wood inscribed with the name and dates of the
deceased. They are kept in a small shrine at home and in the clan ancestral temple.
Incense is lit before the tablets daily and offerings of food and prostrations are presented
twice a month.
Chinese weddings and funerals often include elaborate rituals honoring deceased family
members. Periodical rites are also performed at the family cemetary and ancestor worship
is central to the annual Ghost Festival and Tomb Sweeping Festival.
Prayer in Chinese Religion
Chinese Buddhism and Taoism both incorporate prayer into their daily religious rituals.
In addition to the prayer accompanying offerings, the monastic prayer (mu-yu) is said
morning, noon and night to the sound of a small bell.
Prayer for the dead is especially important in Taoism and practiced at funerals, the 30th
day after death, the anniversary of a loved one's death, and the birthday of the deceased.
This is believed to help improve the experiences of the deceased's spirit in the afterlife.
There are also particular prayers that accompany pilgrimages and vows. Buddhist monks
and laymen often use a string with 108 beads to assist in prayer.
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Chinese Longevity Rituals
Longevity practices - rituals and lifestyles aimed at gaining a long life or even
immortality - have long been a part of Chinese religion. Even before the development of
Taoism, several "hygiene schools" were teaching various techniques for achieving
longevity. These practices later became a central part of religious Taoism, in which the
pursuit of immortality and the Immortals is central.
Chinese rituals intended to achieve longevity include alchemy (magical medicines),
breathing exercises, sexual techniques, special diets (usually excluding grain), exercises,
and meditation.
Chinese Divination and Astrology
What is Chinese Astrology?
Divination was commonplace in ancient China. The famous "Classic of Changes"
(composed before the third century BCE) involved divination. However, Confucianism
generally disapproved of divination and magic, preferring rationalism instead. Most
Chinese governments have suppressed divination and prophecies as well, especially those
reflecting negatively on the current rulers. Nevertheless, prophets sometimes appeared in
folk religion promising followers a good life in this world and the next, and this was
tolerated.
One way in which ancient prophetical practices have survived is through Chinese
astrology. Chinese astrology is related to the Chinese calendar, particularly its 12-year
cycle of animals (in the Chinese zodiac), and the fortune-telling aspects according to
movement of heavenly bodies across the Chinese constellations in the sky.
Background of Chinese Astrology
The ancient Chinese astronomers called the five major planets by the names of the Five
Elements. Venus is Metal (gold); Jupiter is Wood; Mercury is Water; Mars is Fire; Saturn
is Earth. The position of the five planets, the sun, the moon and comets in the sky and the
Chinese zodiac sign at the time a person was born determine the destiny of a person's life
according to the Chinese astrology. A laborious system of computing one's fate and
destiny based on one birthday and birth hours is still used regularly in modern day
Chinese astrology. The twenty-eight Chinese constellations are quite different from the
88 Western constellations. For example, the belt of Orion is known as the "Happiness,
Fortune, Longevity" trio of demigods. Xuan Wu is also known as the spirit of the
northern sky or the spirit of Water in Taoism belief.
In addition to astrological readings of the heavenly bodies, the stars in the sky form the
basis of many fairy tales. For example, the Summer Triangle is the trio of the cowherd
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(Altair), the spinster maid fairy (Vega) and the "tai bai" fairy (Deneb). The two forbidden
lovers were separated by the silvery river (the Milky Way). Each year on the seventh day
of the seventh month in the Chinese calendar, the birds form a bridge across the Milky
Way. The cowherd carries their two sons (the two stars on each side of Altair) across the
bridge to reunite with their fairy mother. The tai bai fairy acts as the chaperone of these
two immortal lovers.
Chinese Zodiac
The twelve zodiac animal signs are, in order: the rat, ox, tiger, rabbit,
dragon, snake, horse, sheep (or goat), monkey, rooster, dog, and pig.
There are many legends to explain the beginning of the zodiac. One of
the most popular explanations reads, in summarized form, as follows:
The rat was given the task to invite the animals to report to the Jade
Emperor to be selected for the zodiac signs. The cat was a good friend of the rat, but the
rat forgot to invite him. So the cat vowed to be the rat's natural enemy for ages to come.
Another popular legend has it that a race was used to decide the animals to report to the
Jade Emperor:
All the animals lined up on the bank of a river and were given the task of getting to the opposite shore.
Their order in the calendar would be set by the order in which the animals managed to reach the other side.
The cat wondered how he would get across if he was afraid of water. At the same time, the ox wondered
how he would cross with his poor eyesight. The calculating rat suggested that he and the cat jump onto the
ox's back and guide him across. The ox was steady and hard-working so that he did not notice a commotion
on his back. In the meanwhile, the rat snuck up behind the unsuspecting cat and shoved him into the water.
Just as the ox came ashore, the rat jumped off and finished the race first. The lazy pig came to the far shore
in twelfth place. And so the rat got the first year named after him, the ox got the second year, and the pig
ended up as the last year in the cycle. The cat finished too late(thirteenth) to win any place in the calendar,
and vowed to be the enemy of the rat forevermore.
Some versions of the tale say that the cattle nominated a water buffalo to represent them
because he was more proficient at water. The trade was acceptable because both animals
are members of the family of bovids.
Another expands the race; the route ran through a forest, over ranges of plains and
grasslands, and along a stream, before finally crossing a lake to the destination town.
Yet another variation tells of two different races. The first involved all the animals, in
two divisions to avoid the fast animals dominating the top, and the top six in each
division would "make the cut" for a second round. This format is rather like the one that
the National Football League uses to determine its playoff teams (six from each
conference).
There is also a cycle of the Five Elements (Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal (Gold), Water) on
top of the cycle of animals. A person's year sign can be a gold dragon, a wood rooster etc.
In ancient match-making practice in China, couples were brought together according to
their compatible signs. For example, it is believed that dog and dog don't get along, but
52
dog and pig do; a water dog supports a wood pig but dominates a fire pig in their
relationship because water benefits wood, but controls fire according to the Chinese five
elements' interaction.
The elements are also associated with colours, the traditional correspondence being green
to Wood, red to Fire, brown to Earth, white to Metal, and black to Water. Some websites
denote the years by the colour and zodiac sign (as opposed to animal sign and element).
The elements are combined with the binary Yin Yang cycle, which enlarges the element
cyle to a cycle of ten. Even years are yang, odd years are yin. Since the zodiac animal
cycle of 12 is divisible by two, every zodiac can only occur in either yin or yang: the
dragon is always yang, the snake is always yin, etc. This combination creates a 60-year
cycle, starting with Wood Rat and ending with Water Pig. The current cycle began in the
year 1984.
Since the (traditional) Chinese zodiac follows the (lunisolar) Chinese calendar, the switch
over date for the zodiac signs is the Chinese New Year, not January 1 as in the Gregorian
calendar. However, there are some newer astrological texts which follow the Chinese
Agricultural Calendar (the jie qi), and thus place the changeover of zodiac signs at the
solar term li chun (beginning of Spring), at solar longitude 315 degrees.
The Chinese zodiac signs are used by cultures other than Chinese also. For one example,
they often appear on Japanese New Year's cards. The United States Postal Service and
those of several other countries issue a "Year of the ???" postage stamp each year to
honor this Chinese heritage. However, those unfamiliar with the use of the Chinese lunar
calendar usually just assume that the signs switch over on Jan 1 of each year.
Hours of the Day
n addition to years, the Chinese zodiac is also traditionally used to label times of day,
with each sign corresponding to a "large-hour" or shichen, which is a two-hour period
The following hours are in Beijing local time.
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23:00 - 01:00: rat
01:00 - 03:00: ox
03:00 - 05:00: tiger
05:00 - 07:00: rabbit
07:00 - 09:00: dragon
09:00 - 11:00: snake
11:00 - 13:00: horse
13:00 - 15:00: goat
15:00 - 17:00: monkey
17:00 - 19:00: rooster
19:00 - 21:00: dog
21:00 - 23:00: pig
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Chinese Holidays and Festivals
What are Chinese holidays?
Several traditional Chinese holidays and festivals are celebrated throughout the year.
The most well-known Chinese holiday is Chinese New Year, which is celebrated in
Chinatowns all over the world to the delight of Chinese and non-Chinese alike. Other
holidays celebrate the seasons and honor deceased ancestors. The most important
holidays in Chinese religion are the following:
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Chinese New Year
Autumn Moon Festival
Ghost Festival
Chinese Buddhist Festivals
Qing Ming Jie (Tomb Sweeping Day)
“Religions and Belief Systems”. Religion Facts. 3February2014< http://www.religionfacts.com/>.
54
ISLAM
Overview of Islam
The Basics of Islam
Islam is the second-largest religion in the world, with over 1 billion followers. It is a
monotheistic faith founded by a man named Muhammad in 7th-century Saudi Arabia.
Muhammad
According to Muslim belief, the angel Gabriel appeared to Muhammad, a camel driver, in
a mountain cave and delivered a message from the one true God. The Prophet
Muhammad dedicated the remainder of his life to spreading a message of monotheism in
a polytheistic world. His life's work is recorded in the Qur'an, the sacred text of Islam.
In 622 AD, the Prophet fled north to the city of Medina to escape growing persecution.
This event is celebrated by Muslims as the hijira ("flight") and marks the beginning of
the Islamic calendar (622 AD = 1 AH).
Eight years later, Muhammad returned to Mecca with an army and defeated it easily. By
Muhammad's death, 50 years later, the entire Arabian Peninsula had come under Muslim
control.
The word "Islam" means "submission," reflecting the religion's central tenet of
submitting to the will of God. Islamic practices center on the Five Pillars of Islam:
confession of faith, daily prayer, fasting during Ramadan, pilgrimage and charity.
The Quran
The sacred text of Islam, the Qur'an, was written in Arabic within 30 years of
Muhammad's death. Muslims believe it contains the literal word of God as gradually
55
revealed to Muhammad by the Angel Gabriel over the course of 20 years. Also important
is the tradition of the sayings and actions of the Prophet and his Companions, collected in
the hadith.
Islam and the West have had a rocky relationship for centuries, and in recent years the
tension has only seemed to escalate. The ongoing conflict between Israel and Palestine is
religiously charged, Western involvement in Middle Eastern affairs is resented, and
various hijackers, suicide bombers and terrorists base their actions on their Muslim faith.
Many Muslims, however, have denounced this radical minority as violating both true
Islam and the true meaning of jihad, and Islam continues to be the fastest-growing
religion in the world.
Six Articles of Faith
There is no official creed to which one must adhere to be considered a Muslim. All that is
required is to believe and recite the Shahada: "There is no God but God, and Muhammad
is his Prophet." Beyond this core belief, however, Muslim doctrine is often summarized
in "Six Articles of Faith." Many Muslims believe that one must adhere to the six articles
to be considered a Muslim.
Muslim Beliefs about God
The single most important belief in Islam, and arguably the central theme of Islam, is that
there is only one God. The name of God is Allah, which is simply Arabic for "the (al)
God (Ilah)." The term is related to Elohim, the Hebrew word for God.
Muslim Beliefs about the Prophets
Muhammad, the founder of Islam, is revered as "the Seal of the Prophets" - the last and
greatest of the messengers of God. He is not divine in any way, for the strict monotheism
that characterizes Islam (as well as Judaism) does not allow for such an interpretation.
Other prophets are important in Islam as well, all of which are shared with the Jews or the
Christians.
Muslim Beliefs about Human Nature
According to the Qur'an, Allah "created man from a clot of blood" at the same time he
created the jinn from fire. Humans are the greatest of all creatures, created with free will
for the purpose of obeying and serving God.
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Muslim Beliefs about Life and Salvation
For a Muslim, the object of life is to live in a way that is pleasing to Allah so that one
may gain Paradise. It is believed that at puberty, an account of each person's deeds is
opened, and this will be used at the Day of Judgment to determine his eternal fate.
Muslim Beliefs about the Afterlife
Like Christianity, Islam teaches the continued existence of the soul and a transformed
physical existence after death. There will be a day of judgment and humanity will be
divided between the eternal destinations of Paradise and Hell.
Muslim Views of Other Religions
The Qur'an is clear that there must be "no compulsion in religion" (2:256). Yet Islam is
not indifferent to conversion either - Muslims consider their religion to the be the one
true religion, and invite people of all races, nationalities and religions to be part of it.
Six Articles of Faith
What are the Six Articles of Faith in Islam?
Muslim doctrine is often summarized in "Six Articles of Faith." According to this list, to
be a Muslim one must believe in:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
One God;
The angels of God;
The books of God, especially the Qur'an;
The prophets of God, especially Muhammad;
The Day of Judgment (or the afterlife); and
The supremacy of God's will (or predestination).
This list is sometimes shortened to Five Articles of Faith, which leaves off belief in the
supremacy of God's will.
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Muslim Beliefs about God
What do Muslims believe about God?
The single most important belief in Islam, and arguably the central theme of Islam, is
that there is one God. The Muslim name for God is Allah, which is simply Arabic for
"the (al) God (Ilah)." The term is related to Elohim, the Hebrew word for God.
What is Allah like?
Muslims believe that God is the all-powerful Creator of a perfect, ordered universe.
He is transcendent and not a part of his creation, and is most often referred to in terms
and with names that emphasize his majesty and superiority. Among the 99 Beautiful
Names of God (Asma al-Husna) in the Qur'an are: the Creator, the Fashioner, the LifeGiver, the Provider, the Opener, the Bestower, the Prevailer, the Reckoner, the Recorder,
the King of Kingship and the Lord of the Worlds.
What can Muslims know about Allah?
Although the God of Islam has revealed his will through the prophets, his actual nature
remains ultimately unknowable. According to one Islamic scholar, God's will "is all we
have, and we have it in perfection in the Qur'an. But Islam does not equate the Qur'an
with the nature or essence of God. It is the Word of God, the Commandment of God, the
Will of God. But God does not reveal Himself to anyone." In the words of another
writer, "only adjectival descriptions are attributed to the divine being, and these merely as
they bear on the revelation of God's will for man. The rest remains mysterious."
Despite God's transcendence and ultimate unknowability, however, the Qur'an does not
teach that God does not know us, nor that he remains aloof in some distant heaven. Quite
the contrary: He is present everywhere and "as close to a man as the vein in his neck."
The one thing that is made abundantly clear, however, is that Allah is One. He is unique
and indivisible. The Qur'an repeatedly emphasizes strict monotheism, explicitly rejecting
both polytheism and the Christian concept of the Trinity.
Characteristics of Allah
Along with Judaism and Christianity, Islam belongs to the religious category of "ethical
monotheism." Allah is a God of justice, who expects righteous behavior and submission
to the divine will (the word Islam means "submission," and a Muslim is literally "one who
submits") and punishes unrighteousness.
"If ye love Allah, follow me; Allah will love and forgive you your sins." (Qur'an 3:31)
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"Allah loves not transgressors" (2:190)
"He loves not creatures ungrateful or wicked" (2:276)
"Allah loves not those who do wrong" (3:57, 140)
"Allah loves not the arrogant, the vainglorious" (4:36).
Yet divine mercy is not absent from the Qur'an. It teaches that God will respond to
anyone who cries out to him in distress and that he mercifully provides guidance to
humanity so they can follow "the straight path." The primary way God has done this is
through his prophets or messengers, the last and most important of which is the Prophet
Muhammad.
In the article on Islam for the Encyclopædia Britannica, Fazlur Rahman notes how the
Muslim concept of God relates to the religious context in which the faith arose:
This picture of God-wherein the attributes of power, justice, and mercy interpenetrate-is related to the
Judeo-Christian tradition, whence it is derived with certain modifications, and also to the concepts of pagan
Arabia, to which it provided an effective answer. The pagan Arabs believed in a blind and inexorable fate
over which man had no control. For this powerful but insensible fate the Qur'an substituted a powerful but
provident and merciful God.
Finally, to conclude with a description of the God of Islam in the words of Muslims
themselves, this is an excerpt from the same text on God found on several Islamic
websites:
Allah is the proper name applied to the true God Who exists necessarily by Himself comprising all the
excellent Divine names and attributes of perfection. Allah is One and Unique. He has no son, partner, or
equal. He is the sole Creator and Sustainer of the universe. Every creature bears witness to His Oneness,
Divinity, and Ruboobiyyah, and to the uniqueness of His attributes and names. His essence does not
resemble any other essences. He does not exist in anything, nor does anything exist in Him. There is none
like unto Him.
He is the One, the Sole, the Indivisible. He is the Rubb who accomplishes all affairs, Allah is the
Omnipotent and the Omniscient. His knowledge comprehends in perfect manner all things, hidden or
manifest. He is greater than can be encompassed by the knowledge of His creatures. He knows everything,
and He is aware of all that take place in the earth or in the heavens. Allah, the Supreme, is the Rubb of
everything and has a free hand in the disposal of all affairs. Allah-exalted be He is the One Who manages
the things that take place. No affair occurs in the visible or the invisible world without His determination,
His decree, His will and His decision, so that what He wills takes place, and what He does not will does not
take place. No one who can ever resist His command or change His decision.
He is the Merciful One, and His mercy encompasses everything. He is far removed from injustice and
tyranny. He is wise in all His actions, just in all His decrees. His justice ensures order in the universe, in
which nothing is out of order. There is no one to share His dominion, nor does He take an aide or supporter
from His creatures. He is the Rubb of the worlds. He is nearer to man than man's own jugular vein.
Whenever a believer is in need or distress calls on Him, He responds.
He is above the Seven Heavens, mounting His throne in the manner that suits His grandeur and majesty.
Allah has revealed His final Scripture, the Qur'an, to the last of His Messengers, Muhammad, peace be
upon him, who was responsible for conveying the Message of Islam to mankind. He is the Exalted Allah.
Glory is due to Him. He is far removed from every imperfection.
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The Role of Prophets in Islam
Prophets in Islam
Muhammad, the founder of Islam, is revered as "the Seal of the Prophets" - the last and
greatest of the messengers of God. He is not divine in any way, for the strict monotheism
that characterizes Islam does not allow for such an interpretation. Other prophets (nabi in
Arabic) are important in Islam as well, all of which are shared with the Jews or the
Christians.
The Prophets of Islam
Prophets other than Muhammad in a painting of the Day of Judgment from 19th-century Iran.
Traditionally, five prophets are recognized by Islam as having been sent by God (known
as ulul azmi, "the Resolute").
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Noah (Nuh)
Abraham (Ibrahim)
Moses (Musa)
Jesus (Isa)
Muhammad
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There are a number of other historical figures recognized in the Qur'an as prophets, and
still others that are not mentioned.
"And certainly We sent messengers before you: there are some of them that We have mentioned to you and
there are others whom We have not mentioned to you..."
(Qur'an 40:78)
Muslims trace their heritage to the Hebrew people and prophets. The term "Semite"
derives from Shem, the son of Noah, and both Jews and Arabs consider themselves
Semitic people. In particular, they trace their ancestry to Ishmael, the firstborn son of
Abraham.
Abraham in Islam
In the Hebrew Scriptures, Abraham and Sarah, approaching old age, had difficulty
bearing a child. This problem was made even more serious by the fact that God had
promised Abraham that he would become the father of many nations. So, with Sarah
seemingly barren, Abraham took Hagar as a second wife. Hagar bore Abraham a son,
named Ishmael. Shortly thereafter, however, Sarah also bore Abraham a son, named
Isaac. Having fulfilled her marital duty and God's promise, Sarah demanded that
Abraham reject Hagar and Ishmael.
Abraham did so, and from this point, the Qur'an departs from the biblical story to follow
the story of Ishmael. According to the Qur'an, Ishmael went to the place that would later
be known as Mecca. His descendents would be the Muslims, while Isaac's descendents
became the Jews.
Islamic Beliefs about Human Nature
What does Islam teach about human nature?
According to the Qur'an, Allah "created man from a clot of blood" at the same time he
created the jinn from fire. Humans are the greatest of all creatures, created with free will
for the purpose of obeying and serving God.
Original Sin in Islam
The Qur'an includes a version of the biblical story of the fall of Adam (Qur'an 7), but it
does not conclude from it the doctrine of original sin as some Christian theologians have.
In the Quranic version of the story, Adam and Eve begged God's forgiveness (7:23) and
he punished them with a mortal life on earth but added, "from it [earth] you will be taken
out at last" (7:25).
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Since Allah forgave the sins of the first pair, Muslims believe, all are born in Al-Fitra, a
natural state of submission to Allah. True repentance from sin returns a person to this
original sinless state.
According to Muslim theology, mankind's chief failing is pride and rebellion. In their
pride, humans attempt to partner themselves with God and thereby damage the unity of
God. Thus pride is Islam's cardinal sin. The cardinal virtue, then, is submission, or islam.
Purpose of Life and Salvation in Islam
What is the Purpose of Life in Islam?
For a Muslim, the purpose of life is to live in a way that is pleasing to Allah so that one
may gain Paradise. It is believed that at puberty, an account of each person's deeds is
opened, and this will be used at the Day of Judgment to determine his eternal fate. The
Qur'an also suggests a doctrine of divine predestination.
The Muslim doctrine of salvation is that unbelievers (kuffar, literally "those who are
ungrateful") and sinners will be condemned, but genuine repentance results in Allah's
forgiveness and entrance into Paradise upon death.
Faith and Works in Salvation in the Quran
The Qur'an teaches the necessity of both faith and good works for salvation:
He it is Who sends blessings on you, as do His angels, that He may bring you out from the depths of
Darkness into Light: and He is Full of Mercy to the Believers. (33:43)
In the case of those who say, "Our Lord is Allah," and, further, stand straight and steadfast, the angels
descend on them (from time to time): "Fear ye not!" (they suggest), "Nor grieve! but receive the Glad
Tidings of the Garden (of Bliss), that which ye were promised!" (41:30)
And fear the Fire, which is prepared for those who reject Faith. (3:131)
It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces towards East or West; but it is righteousness to believe in
Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book, and the Messengers; to spend of your substance, out
of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the
ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and give zakat; to fulfill the contracts which ye have made; and
to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. (2:177)
You be foremost (in seeking) forgiveness from your Lord, and a Garden (of Bliss), the width whereof is as
the width of heaven and earth, prepared for those who believe in Allah and His messengers: that is the
Grace of Allah, which He bestows on whom He pleases: and Allah is the Lord of Grace abounding.”
(57:21)
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Those are limits set by Allah. those who obey Allah and His Messenger will be admitted to Gardens with
rivers flowing beneath, to abide therein (for ever) and that will be the supreme achievement. But those who
disobey Allah and His Messenger and transgress His limits will be admitted to a Fire, to abide therein: And
they shall have a humiliating punishment. (4:13-14)
To those who believe and do deeds of righteousness hath Allah promised forgiveness and a great reward.
(5:9)
But those who believe and work righteousness,- no burden do We place on any soul, but that which it can
bear, they will be Companions of the Garden, therein to dwell (forever). (7:42)
As to those who believe and work righteousness, verily We shall not suffer to perish the reward of any who
do a (single) righteous deed. (18:30)
But after them there followed a posterity who missed prayers and followed after lusts soon, then, will they
face Destruction,-Except those who repent and believe, and work righteousness: for these will enter the
Garden and will not be wronged in the least,-Gardens of Eternity, those which (Allah) Most Gracious has
promised to His servants in the Unseen: for His promise must (necessarily) come to pass.” S. 19:59-61
Islamic Beliefs about the Afterlife
What do Muslims believe about the afterlife?
Like Christianity, Islam teaches the continued existence of the soul and a transformed
physical existence after death. Muslims believe there will be a day of judgment when all
humans will be divided between the eternal destinations of Paradise and Hell.
Resurrection and the Day of Judgment
A central doctrine of the Qur'an is the Last Day, on which the world will be destroyed
and Allah will raise all people and jinn from the dead to be judged.
The Last Day is also called the Day of Standing Up, Day of Separation, Day of
Reckoning, Day of Awakening, Day of Judgment, The Encompassing Day or The Hour.
Until the Day of Judgment, deceased souls remain in their graves awaiting the
resurrection. However, they begin to feel immediately a taste of their destiny to come.
Those bound for hell will suffer in their graves, while those bound for heaven will be in
peace until that time.
The resurrection that will take place on the Last Day is physical, and is explained by
suggesting that God will re-create the decayed body (17:100: "Could they not see that
God who created the heavens and the earth is able to create the like of them"?).
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On the Last Day, resurrected humans and jinn will be judged by Allah according to their
deeds. One's eternal destination depends on balance of good to bad deeds in life. They are
either granted admission to Paradise, where they will enjoy spiritual and physical
pleasures forever, or condemned to Hell to suffer spiritual and physical torment for
eternity. The day of judgment is described as passing over Hell on a narrow bridge in
order to enter Paradise. Those who fall, weighted by their bad deeds, will remain in Hell
forever.
The Qur'an specifies two exceptions to this general rule:
1.
2.
Warriors who die fighting in the cause of God are ushered immediately to God's presence (2:159
and 3:169); and
"Enemies of Islam" are sentenced immediately to Hell upon death.
Paradise
"O soul who is at rest, return to thy Lord, well-pleased with Him, well-pleasing Him. So enter among My
servants, and enter My garden." (89:27-30)
Paradise (firdaws), also called "The Garden" (Janna), is a place of physical and spiritual
pleasure, with lofty mansions (39:20, 29:58-59), delicious food and drink (52:22, 52:19,
38:51), and virgin companions called houris (56:17-19, 52:24-25, 76:19, 56:35-38,
37:48-49, 38:52-54, 44:51-56, 52:20-21). There are seven heavens (17:46, 23:88, 41:11,
65:12).
Hell
Hell, or Jahannam (Greek gehenna), is mentioned frequently in the Qur'an and the
Sunnah using a variety of imagery. It has seven doors (Qur'an 39:71; 15:43) leading to a
fiery crater of various levels, the lowest of which contains the tree Zaqqum and a
cauldron of boiling pitch. The level of hell depends on the degree of offenses. Suffering
is both physical and spiritual.
Being a Muslim does not keep one out of Hell, but it is not clear whether Muslims remain
in Hell forever. Non-Muslims (kafir), however, will be punished eternally. A Muslim
author on IslamOnline.net explains it this way:
"Ultimately, God will remove from Hell those believers whose sins were not forgiven nor atoned for by
good deeds in their lifetimes, and they will then enter Paradise. The remaining inhabitants of Hell will stay
there eternally." (Islam Online)
Other Muslim commentators, noting that Allah can rescue people from hell as he
chooses, and that he is merciful and compassionate, have hypothesized that eventually
hell will be empty. Alternatively, Hell can be seen as a place of progress where souls are
instructed until they are fit to go to heaven:
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"Life after death is actually the starting-point of further progress for man. Those in paradise are advancing
to higher and higher stages in knowledge and perfection of faith. Hell is meant to purify those in it of the
effects of their bad deeds, and so make them fit for further advancement. Its punishment is, therefore, not
everlasting." (Muslim.org, an Ahmadiyya website)
Islamic Views of Other Faiths
How does Islam view other religions?
Contrary to Islam's reputation of converting by the sword, the Qur'an is clear that there
must be "no compulsion in religion." Yet Muslims are not pluralistic in their worldview
- they consider their religion to the be the true religion and invite people of all races,
nationalities and religions to be part of it.
Islam is closely connected to the two other Abrahamic religions, Judaism and
Christianity. In fact, the Qur'an explains that the religion of the Jews and Christians is the
same as that revealed to Muhammad, and Allah is God of them all.
The same religion has He established for you as that which He enjoined on Noah - the which We have sent
by inspiration to thee - and that which We enjoined on Abraham, Moses, and Jesus: Namely, that ye should
remain steadfast in religion, and make no divisions therein: to those who worship other things than Allah,
hard is the (way) to which thou callest them. Allah chooses to Himself those whom He pleases, and guides
to Himself those who turn to Him.
Moreover, We gave Moses the Book, completing (Our favour) to those who would do right, and explaining
all things in detail, and a guide and a mercy, that they might believe in the meeting with their Lord. And
this is a Book which We have revealed as a blessing: so follow it and be righteous, that ye may receive
mercy: Lest ye should say: "The Book was sent down to two Peoples before us, and for our part, we
remained unacquainted with all that they learned by assiduous study:" {Qur'an 6:154-56}
However, Jews and Christians have not been completely responsible with their revelation
and should still be called to the Muslim faith:
And they became divided only after Knowledge reached them,- through selfish envy as between
themselves. Had it not been for a Word that went forth before from thy Lord, tending to a Term appointed,
the matter would have been settled between them: But truly those who have inherited the Book after them
are in suspicious disquieting doubt concerning it.
Now then, for that reason, call them to the Faith, and stand steadfast as thou art commanded, nor follow
thou their vain desires; but say: "I believe in the Book which Allah has sent down; and I am commanded to
judge justly between you. Allah is our Lord and your Lord: for us is the responsibility for our deeds, and
for you for your deeds. There is no contention between us and you. Allah will bring us together, and to Him
is our Final Goal.
But those who dispute concerning Allah after He has been accepted,- futile is their dispute in the Sight of
their Lord: on them will be a Penalty terrible.
Muhammad spoke approvingly of Jews and Christians as fellow "People of the Book,"
and the Qur'an even allows a Muslim man to take a Jewish or Christian woman for his
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wife. It also expresses admiration for the Jews, in that "they know the Book as they know
their own children!"
As seen in the quote above, Muslims consider the prophets of Judaism and Christianity to
be true messengers of God, but hold Muhammad to be the last and greatest of these.
Although the Qur'an teaches that Jesus was born of the Virgin Mary, it rejects the divinity
of Jesus. It also explicitly condemns the doctrine of the Trinity, which it seems to
interpret as consisting of God, Jesus and Mary:
Believe therefore in God and His Apostles and say not "Three."
They misbelieve who say, "Verily God is the third of three." The Messiah, the son of Mary, is only a
prophet...and his mother was a confessor, they both ate food.
And when God shall say, "O Jesus son of Mary hast thou said unto mankind, "Take me and my mother as
two Gods besides God?"
Muslims reject both the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus. According to the Qur'an,
Jesus escaped the crucifixion and ascended directly to heaven .
Despite these sharp theological differences, the Qur'an does suggest there is hope for the
salvation of Jews and Christians: at the Last Day, distinct communities will be judged
according to "their own book" and:
Those who believe [in the Qur'an], and those who follow the Jewish, and the Christians, and the Sabians,
any who believe in God and the Last Day, and work righteousness, shall have their reward with their Lord,
on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve.
Mahdi
Who is the Mahdi?
The Mahdi is the foretold redeemer of Islam who will come to the Earth before
Judgment Day along Jesus, and cleanse the world of injustice. He is not mentioned in the
Quran, only the Hadith. There is not uniform belief about when the Mahdi will return
and what he will do when he arrives.
The Mahdi in Sunni and Shia
Beliefs about the Mahdi on which most Sunni and Shia agree are that he will be a
descendant of Muhammad, he will have the name Muhammad, his return will coincide
with the rising of the Antichrist, and there will be a solar eclipse in the month of
Ramadan.
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Shia Islam has a more developed doctrine about the Mahdi. Many Shia believe the Mahdi
was born in A.D. 869 and was taken by God when he was five years old and will return
in the end times as the prophesied redeemer. These Shias believe he will have black hair
and dark eyes. They further believe he will come in an odd year and first appear in Mecca
at the Kaaba.
People will initial fear him, but eventually many will follow.
History of Islam
What is the history of Islam?
Arabia before Islam
The Arabian Peninsula was originally the home of nomadic peoples who coped with the
desert climate by migrating every season ("Arab" roughly translates as "desert dweller").
When some began to establish settlements around the fifth century BC, many chose
Mecca, near the west coast of Saudi Arabia, as their home. It did not offer a favorable
climate or many natural resources, but it was the site of the Ka'ba, a large cubical shrine
dedicated to various deities.
The religion of the Arab world before the advent of Islam was an animistic polytheism.
The desert was populated with fiery spirits called jinn. Numerous gods were worshipped,
with most towns having their own patron god.
Mecca soon became the religious center, with 360 shrines, one for each day in the lunar
year. Local merchants depended heavily on pilgrims to these shrines for their livelihood,
a fact which would become significant for Muhammad.
Muhammad
Arab polytheism was focused entirely on the earthly life, and religion was not a source of
morality. By Muhammad's time, blood feuds, violence, and general immorality
abounded.
Yet monotheism was not unheard of among the Arabs. There was contact with
Zoroastrianism, which was the official state religion of Persia from the 3rd century BC to
the 8th century AD and influential on its neighbors. It was a dualistic religion with beliefs
in heaven, hell and a final judgment. In addition, both Judaism and Christianity had
established a presence on the Arabian Peninsula, especially in the south. In Yathrib (later
renamed Medina), the Jewish population was especially influential.
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Allah
Even among the innumerable deities of Arabian polytheism was a god who was more
impressive than the rest. Allah (Arabic for "the god") was "the creator, provider and
determiner of human destiny," and "he was capable of inspiring authentic religious
feeling and genuine devotion" (Smith, 225). In general, Allah was regarded as the
greatest among the many gods deserving worship, but one contemplative sect, the hanifs,
worshiped Allah exclusively.
It was into this world of sporadic monotheism and rampant immorality that Islam was
born.
Life of the Prophet Muhammad
Early Life of the Prophet
Muhammad (whose name means "highly praised") was born in Mecca in 570 AD. His
father died shortly before his birth, and he lost his mother at the age of six. The young
orphan was then raised primarily by his uncle, for whom he worked as a shepherd. At age
9 (some sources say 12), he joined his uncle on a caravan to Syria.
As a young man, Muhammad worked as a camel driver between Syria and Arabia. Soon
he established a career managing caravans on behalf of merchants. Through his travel
first with his uncle and later in his career, Muhammad came into contact with people of
many nationalities and faiths, including Jews, Christians and pagans.
At age 25, Muhammad was employed by Khadija, a wealthy Meccan widow 15 years his
senior. The two were married, and by all accounts enjoyed a loving and happy marriage.
Early records report that "God comforted him through her, for she made his burden
light." Although polygamy was common practice at the time, Muhammad took no other
wife than Khadija until her death 24 years later.
Divine Revelation
In his late 30s Muhammad took to regularly visiting a cave in Mount Hira, on the
outskirts of Mecca, to seek solitude and contemplation. In 610, at the age of 40,
Muhammad returned from one such visit telling his wife he had either gone mad or
become a prophet, for he had been visited by an angel. The initially startled Khadija
became his first convert.
Muhammad reported that while in a trance-like state, the Angel Gabriel appeared to him
and said "Proclaim!" But like Moses, Muhammed was a reluctant prophet. He replied, "I
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am not a proclaimer." The angel persisted, and the Prophet repeatedly resisted, until the
angel finally overwhelmed Muhammad and commanded him:
Proclaim in the name of your Lord who created!
Created man from a clot of blood.
Proclaim: Your Lord is the Most Generous,
Who teaches by the pen;
Teaches man what he knew not. (Qur'an 96:1-3)
After receiving Khadija's support, and additional angelic visits, Muhammad became
confident he had indeed been chosen as the messenger of God and began to proclaim as
he had been commanded.
Muhammad's message to his countrymen was to convert from pagan polytheism,
immorality and materialism, repent from evil and worship Allah, the only true God. He
was always careful to clarify his role in God's work - he was only a prophet. He was not
an angel, he did not know the mind of God, he did not work miracles. He simply
preached what he had received.
In the first three years of his ministry, Muhammad gained only 40 followers. And as his
teachings threatened the Meccan way of life, both moral and economic, he and his
followers experienced heavy persecution. It first took the form of mockery, but soon
turned into open violence. Members of the small movement were stoned, covered in dirt
as they prayed, beat with sticks, thrown into prison and refused service by merchants.
Hijira
Persecution continued to increase until Muhammad received some welcome news: he had
gained followers in the city of Yathrib, 280 miles north of Mecca. The city was in need of
a strong leader, and a delegation from Yathrib proposed that Muhammad take the job. In
return, they pledged to worship Allah only, obey Muhammad and defend him and his
followers to the death. Allah revealed to Muhammed his approval of this arrangement,
and Muhammad made plans to escape to Yathrib.
The leaders in Mecca heard of the planned escape, and attempted to prevent it. But
Muhammad and his close friend Abu Bakr managed to make a narrow escape north out
of the city, evading a Meccan search party and arriving safely in Yathrib. This event is
celebrated by Muslims as the Hijira. The year in which it occurred, 622, is the date at
which the Muslim calendar begins. Yathrib was renamed Medinat al-Nabi, "the City of
the Prophet," and is now known simply as Medina, "the City."
In Medina, Muhammad proved himself an able politician and statesman as well as a
prophet.
Exercising superb statecraft, he welded the five heterogenous and conflicting tribes of the city, three of
which were Jewish, into an orderly confederation.... His reputation spread and people began to flock from
every part of Arabia to see the man who had wrought this 'miracle.' (Smith, 230).
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Battle for Mecca
After establishing himself in Medina and accomplishing the job he had been invited to
do, the people of Medina began several years of battle with Muhammad's former home
city. In 624, the Muslims won their first battle against the Meccans. As the latter had a
much larger army, the former took the victory as a sign that God was on their side.
However, a subsequent battle was not victorious, and Muhammad himself was wounded.
But in 627, the Meccans attacked Medina, and Medina came out on top. The Prophet was
not to lose again.
In 630, Muhammad and his forces marched to Mecca and defeated it. The Prophet
rededicated the Ka'ba temple to Allah, witnessed the conversion to Islam of nearly the
entire Meccan population, then returned to Medina. Muhammad died in 632, having
conquered nearly all of Arabia for Islam.
Spread of Islam
By 634, Islam had taken over the entire Arabian peninsula. Within 100 years of
Muhammad's death, it had reached the Atlantic in one direction and borders of China in
the other. This success was due in large part to the military and political abilities of
Muhammad's successors, the caliphs.
Muslim Rituals & Practices
The Five Pillars of Islam
What are the Five Pillars of Islam?
The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic arkan ud-Din, "pillars of the faith") are the five
religious duties expected of every Muslim. The five pillars are mentioned individually
throughout the Qur'an and Muhammad listed them together in the Hadith when he was
asked to define Islam.
Within a few decades of Muhammad's death, the five practices were singled out to serve
as anchoring points in the Muslim community and designated "pillars." Fulfillment of the
Five Pillars is believed to bring rewards both in this life and in the afterlife.
The pillars are acknowledged and observed by all sects of Muslims, although Shi'ites add
further obligatory duties, including: jihad, payment of the imam's tax, the encouragement
of good deeds and the prevention of evil.
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The Five Pillars of Islam are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Daily confession of faith (shahada)
Daily ritual prayer (salat)
Paying the alms tax (zakat)
Fasting during the month of Ramadan (sawm)
Pilgrimmage to Mecca (ha
What is Shahada?
The first of the Five Pillars of Islam is the shahada. Shahada is the Muslim profession
of faith, expressing the two simple, fundamental beliefs that make one a Muslim:
La ilaha illa Allah wa-Muhammad rasul Allah.
There is no god but God and Muhammad is the prophet of God.
Sincere recitation of this confession of faith before of two Muslims is the sole
requirement for those who wish to join the Muslim community. It represents acceptance
not only of Allah and his prophet, but of the entirety of Islam.
As one of the Pillars, the shahada must be recited correctly aloud with full understanding
and internal assent at least once in every Muslim's lifetime.
The shahada is also recited in the muzzein's call to prayer, included in the salat (daily
ritual prayer) and incorporated in Sufi contemplative prayer. It is also recited in the
moments before death.
From the shahada are derived the other fundamental doctrines of Islam: angels, the
Qur'an and the Bible, the prophets, and the Day of Judgment.
What is Salat?
Perhaps the most well-known Muslim practices among non-Muslims is ritual prayer, or
salat, which is performed five times a day: at dawn (al-fajr), midday (al-zuhr), afternoon
(al-'asr), sunset (al-maghrib) and evening (al-'isha).
Prayer is always directed in the direction (qibla) of the Ka'ba shrine in Mecca. A prayer
mat, sajjada, is commonly used during salat. Salat may be performed individually, but it
carries special merit when done with other Muslims. The focal prayer of the week is the
midday prayer at the mosque on Fridays.
Salat must always be preceded by ablutions (wudu') of ritually washing the face, hands,
and feet. This can be done with sand when water is not available. (Qur'an 5:6; also 2:222,
4:43.) (See Islamic-Paths.org for a detailed article on the ritual of ablutions.)
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At the five appointed times, a muezzin announces a call to prayer (adhan), traditionally
from a mosque's minaret. The words of the shahada feature heavily in the call to prayer:
Allahu Akbar
Ashadu anna la ilaha illa Allah
Ashadu anna Muhammadan rasul
Allah
Haiya 'ala al-salat
Haiya 'ala al-falah
Al-salat khayrun min al-nawm
Allahu Akbar
La ilaha illa Allah
God is most great
I bear witness there is no god but God
I bear witness Muhammad is the prophet of
God
Come to prayer
Come to wellbeing
Prayer is better than sleep
God is most great
There is no God but God
In modern times, the muezzin is usually heard on the radio. One can also utilize a service
such as the "salat pager," which sends a reminder to the believer's pager as prayer times
approach.
When performing salat at the mosque, worshippers are aligned in parallel rows behind
the prayer leader (imam), who directs them through the rak'as (prescribed postures and
recitations).
Islamic prayer begins in a standing position and moves through several simple postures
until the supplicant is kneeling. (IslamicVoice.com has an illustrated guide to the rak'as,
with an emphasis on the health benefits of the postures.) Specified recitations are said in
each posture.
The content of prayer is glorification of God, recitations of the Qur'an, and blessings on
the Prophet. Salat concludes with the taslima (greeting), "Peace be upon you," even when
praying alone.
In addition to the regular prayer times, special congregational prayers take place just after
noon on Fridays and mid-morning on the two major holidays. Individual devotional
prayers, though not obligatory, are encouraged, especially during the night (tahajjud).
What is Zakat?
Almsgiving is a central activity in Islam. The Qur'an explicitly requires it (9:60) and
often places it alongside prayer when discussing a Muslim's duties. ("Perform the prayer
and give the alms." 2:43, 110, 277)
For those who are greedy and use their money outside of the will of Allah, the Qur'an has
harsh words: the fires of hell will heat up the coins and the greedy will be branded with it
(9:34-35).
The zakat is an alms tax, required of every adult Muslim with sufficient means. In many
ways it resembles the modern welfare state, in which the "haves" are taxed to help the
"have-nots." For most of Islam's history, the tax was enforced by the state. Today it is
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mostly left up to the individual, except in Saudi Arabia where religious law (Shari'a) is
strictly adhered to.
The rate of zakat is 2.5 percent, not of income, but of the value of all of one's
possessions. Five categories of goods are taxed: grains; fruit; camels; cattle; sheep and
goats; gold and silver; and movable goods. The recipients of the tax are the poor, debtors,
slaves seeking to buy their freedom, volunteers in jihad, pilgrims, and the collectors of
the tax. (IslamiCity.com has a Zakat Information Center, featuring calculators for
determining the amount of your zakat.)
Along with the zakat, both the Qur'an and the Hadith emphasize the importance of
voluntary almsgiving (sadaqa) to the needy. In Shi'a Islam, an additional one-fifth tax
(khums) must be paid to the Hidden Imam and his representatives for the benefit of
orphans, the poor, travelers, and the imams.
What is Sawm?
Sawm (also siyam), fasting, commemorates the revelation of the Qur'an to humanity
during Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic year. During Ramadan, all adult
Muslims are required to abstain from food, drink and sexual intercourse during daylight
hours. Exceptions are made for travelers, soldiers, menstruating women, and the ill,
although such persons are expected to fast later when they become able.
In addition to being a time of fasting, Ramadan is an opportunity for increased prayer and
devotion. During the last 10 nights of Ramadan, some Muslims retreat to a mosque for
even more intensive study and contemplation. One of these nights, usually the 27th of
Ramadan, is the "Night of Power," the holiest day of the year.
In the year 2005 (1426 AH), Ramadan will take place from approximately October 1 to
November 30. Observance begins and ends upon the first official sighting of the new
moon, so overcast skies may delay or prolong the fast.
The observance of Ramadan ends with Eid al-Fitr (Festival of the Breaking of the Fast), a
major Islamic holiday.
Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca
At least once in his or her lifetime, each Muslim is expected to undertake a pilgrimage to
Mecca, the sacred city of Islam. This holy journey is called the hajj in Arabic. While a
visit to Mecca is beneficial any time of the year, it must take place during the month of
Dhu al-Hijja (the last month of the Islamic year) to fulfill the requirements of the hajj.
As with the sawm (fasting), exceptions are made for those who are physically or
financially unable to fulfill this obligation, and one is actually commanded not to make
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the hajj if to do so would cause hardship for his or her family. However, those unable to
go themselves may fulfill their obligation by sending someone in their stead.
The hajj is commanded in the Qur'an - "And pilgrimage to the House is a duty unto God
for mankind, for him who can find the way thither" (3:97) - and its rites were established
by Muhammad, but Muslim tradition dates it back to Adam and Abraham, who were
instructed by angels in the performance of the rites. The hajj was one of the last public
acts of worship performed by Muhammad before his death.
In part, the hajj commemorates the stories of Abraham, Hagar and Ishmael and it has
been assigned various other meanings throughout the centuries. For many Muslims, one
of the most meaningful aspects of the pilgrimmage is the unifying effect of bringing
together believers from all over the world to meet and worship together.
Upon arrival at the boundary of Mecca (about six miles from the Ka'ba), pilgrims enter
the state of ihram (purity) in which they will remain throughout the hajj. Males entering
this pure state don the ihram garments - two white, seamless sheets wrapped around the
body - and sandals. This aspect of the rite not only signifies the state of holiness the
pilgrims have entered, but it serves to contribute to a sense of equality and unity by
removing visual indicators of class, wealth and culture. Requirements for women are less
stringent, but they usually dress in white with only faces and hands uncovered. While in
the state of ihram, pilgrims must not cut their nails or hair, engage in sexual relations,
argue, fight or hunt.
When he or she enters the city of Mecca, the pilgrim first walks around the Ka'ba seven
times (the tawaf, or circumambulation) while reciting the talbiya, then kisses or touches
the Black Stone in the Ka'ba, prays twice towards the Station of Abraham and the Ka'ba
and runs seven times between the small mountains of Safa and Marwa.
The second stage of the hajj takes place between the 8th and 12th days of Dhu al-Hijja,
beginning with a sermon (khutba) at the mosque on the 7th day. On the eighth day and
night, the pilgrim stays at Mina or Arafat. On the ninth day, the ritual of wuquf
("standing") takes place at the small hill of Jabal al-Rahma in Arafat. The pilgrim then
returns to Muzdalifa, a small town within the Meccan boundaries, to stay the night.
The tenth day is Eid al-Adha (The Feast of Sacrifice), a major holiday observed by all
Muslims. For those participating in the hajj, the day is spent in Mina, where the pilgrim
sacrifices an animal to commemorate Abraham's sacrifice and throws seven small stones
at each of three pillars on three consecutive days (the pillars represent sins and devils).
The pilgrim then returns to Mecca, where he or she once again performs the tawaf
(circumambulation of the Ka'ba). The head is then shaved or the hair is trimmed, which
marks the end of the state of ihram.
About 2 million Muslims complete the hajj each year. The government of Saudi Arabia
has contributed significant resources to maintain the holy places and manage the crowd
of pilgrims. Despite the large numbers seen in Mecca each year, only a small percentage
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of Muslims have fulfilled the duty. Those who have done so may add the title hajj or hajji
to their names.
Islamic Sects, Subdivisions & Groups
What are the sects of Islam?
Islamic sects are not simply "denominations," if that word is understood to mean
various valid approaches to the same religion. Members of one Islamic group do not
usually recognize members of other groups as fellow Muslims, and open conflict between
sects is not uncommon.
Yet, as a whole, Islam is less divided than Christianity and Judaism - the vast majority of
the world's Muslims are Sunnis. And Sufism is a mystical approach to Islam that is
approved as orthodox by nearly all Muslims. Follow a link below to learn about some of
the largest Muslim sects and groups.
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Ahmadiyya
Shi'a
Sufism
Sunni
What is Sunni Islam?
With 940 million adherents out of about 1.1 billion Muslims, Sunni Islam is the largest
Islamic sect. Followers of the Sunni tradition are known as Sunnis or Sunnites; they
sometimes refer to themselves as Ahlus Sunnah wal-Jamaa'h, "adherents to the Sunnah
and the assembly."
Sunnis have their historical roots in the majority group who followed Abu Bakr, an
effective leader, as Muhammad's successor instead of the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law
Ali. The Sunnis are so named because they believe themselves to follow the sunnah
("custom" or "tradition") of the Prophet.
Some general statistics: Algeria is nearly 99% Sunni (Sunni Islam is the state religion),
Kuwait is 70% and Afghanistan is 80% Sunni. Sunnis also outnumber Shi'ites in Israel,
Egypt, Turkey, Somalia, Uzbekistan, Sudan (70%), Syria (80%), Tajikistan (85%), Libya
(97%), Jordan (92%) and certain islands like the Maldives, Comoros (98%) and the
Cocos (Keeling) Islands (80%).
Contrastingly, Iraq is only about 45-60% Sunni, who are concentrated mostly in the
central and northern parts of the country. Sunni Muslims are a smaller minority in Iran
(10%) and Bahrain (30%).
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Sunnis base their religion on the Quran and the Sunnah as understood by the majoroty of
the community under the structure of four schools of thought. The four Sunni schools of
law (madhahib) - the Hanafi, the Maliki, the Shafi'i and the Hanbali - are sometimes
mistakenly understood as different sects, but they are not. These four schools of religious
law associate themselves with four great scholars of early Islam: Abu Haneefah, Malik,
Shafi'i, and Ahmad bin Hanbal. These scholars were known for their knowledge and
piety throughout the Muslim world. They differed only in minor issues of application of
certain principles in the religion and were not in opposition to each other. In fact, Ahmad
bin Hanbal was a student of Shafi'i, who was a student of Malik.
Sunnis view Shi'ites as from the ahlul-bidah — the people of innovation. Sunnis oppose
Shi'ite beliefs concerning some of the companions of the Prophet, the belief in the
Imamate and difference on the Caliphate, and others. Other groups considered to be
outside Islam by Sunnis are Nation of Islam, Ahmadiyya, and Ismailis.
What is Shia Islam?
Shia Islam encompasses most Muslims who are not counted among the Sunni. The
division between Sunni and Shi'a, dates to the death of the Prophet Muhammad when his
followers were faced with the decision of who would be his successor as the leader of
Islam. Shi'ites are those who followed Ali, the closest relative of Muhammad, as
Muhammad's successor. Today there are approximately 120 million Shi'ite Muslims in
the world.
The Shia consist of one major school of thought known as the Jafaryia or the "Twelvers,"
and a few minor schools of thought, as the "Seveners" or the "Fivers." These names all
refer to the number of imams they recognize after the death of Muhammad. The term
Shi'a is usually meant to be synonymous with the Jafaryia/Twelvers.
The Imams
The distinctive dogma and institution of Shia Islam is the Imamate, which includes the
idea that the successor of Muhammad be more than merely a political leader. The Imam
must also be a spiritual leader, which means that he must have the ability to interpret the
inner mysteries of the Quran and the sharia. The Twelver Shias further believe that the
Twelve Imams who succeeded the Prophet were sinless and free from error and had been
chosen by God through Muhammad.
The Imamate began with Ali, who is also accepted by Sunni Muslims as the fourth of the
"rightly guided caliphs" to succeed the Prophet. Shias revere Ali as the First Imam, and
his descendants, beginning with his sons Hasan and Husayn (also seen as Hosein),
continue the line of the Imams until the Twelfth, who is believed to have ascended into a
supernatural state to return to earth on judgment day.
Shias point to the close lifetime association of Muhammad with Ali. When Ali was six
years old, he was invited by the Prophet to live with him, and Shias believe Ali was the
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first person to make the declaration of faith in Islam. Ali also slept in Muhammad's bed
on the night of the hijra, or migration from Mecca to Medina, when it was feared that the
house would be attacked by unbelievers and the Prophet stabbed to death. He fought in
all the battles Muhammad did except one, and the Prophet chose him to be the husband of
his favorite daughter, Fatima.
In Sunni Islam an imam is the leader of congregational prayer. Among the Shias of Iran
the term imam traditionally has been used only for Ali and his eleven descendants. None
of the Twelve Imams, with the exception of Ali, ever ruled an Islamic government.
During their lifetimes, their followers hoped that they would assume the rulership of the
Islamic community, a rule that was believed to have been wrongfully usurped. Because
the Sunni caliphs were cognizant of this hope, the Imams generally were persecuted
during the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. Therefore, the Imams tried to be as
unobtrusive as possible and to live as far as was reasonable from the successive capitals
of the Islamic empire.
During the ninth century Caliph Al Mamun, son of Caliph Harun ar Rashid, was
favorably disposed toward the descendants of Ali and their followers. He invited the
Eighth Imam, Reza (A.D. 765-816), to come from Medina to his court at Marv (Mary in
the present-day Soviet Union). While Reza was residing at Marv, Mamun designated him
as his successor in an apparent effort to avoid conflict among Muslims. Reza's sister
Fatima journeyed from Medina to be with her brother but took ill and died at Qom. A
shrine developed around her tomb, and over the centuries Qom has become a major Shia
pilgrimage and theology center.
Mamun took Reza on his military campaign to retake Baghdad from political rivals. On
this trip Reza died unexpectedly in Khorasan. Reza was the only Imam to reside or die in
what is now Iran. A major shrine, and eventually the city of Mashhad, grew up around his
tomb, which has become the most important pilgrimage center in Iran. Several important
theological schools are located in Mashhad, associated with the shrine of the Eighth
Imam.
Reza's sudden death was a shock to his followers, many of whom believed that Mamun,
out of jealousy for Reza's increasing popularity, had him poisoned. Mamun's suspected
treachery against Reza and his family tended to reinforce a feeling already prevalent
among his followers that the Sunni rulers were untrustworthy.
The Twelfth Imam is believed to have been only five years old when the Imamate
descended upon him in 874 CE at the death of his father. The Twelfth Imam is usually
known by his titles of Imam-e Asr (the Imam of the Age) and Sahib az Zaman (the Lord
of Time). Because his followers feared he might be assassinated, the Twelfth Imam was
hidden from public view and was seen only by a few of his closest deputies. Sunnis claim
that he never existed or that he died while still a child. Shias believe that the Twelfth
Imam remained on earth, but hidden from the public, for about 70 years, a period they
refer to as the "lesser occultation" (gheybat-e sughra). Shias also believe that the Twelfth
Imam has never died, but disappeared from earth in about 939 CE. Since that time the
"greater occultation" (gheybat-e kubra) of the Twelfth Imam has been in force and will
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last until God commands the Twelfth Imam to manifest himself on earth again as the
Mahdi, or Messiah. Shias believe that during the greater occultation of the Twelfth Imam
he is spiritually present--some believe that he is materially present as well-- and he is
besought to reappear in various invocations and prayers. His name is mentioned in
wedding invitations, and his birthday is one of the most jubilant of all Shia religious
observances.
Other Distinctive Shia Doctrines
The Shia doctrine of the Imamate was not fully elaborated until the tenth century. Other
dogmas were developed still later. One characteristic of Shia Islam is the continual
exposition and reinterpretation of doctrine. The most recent example is Khomeini's
expounding of the doctrine of velayat-e faqih, or the political guardianship of the
community of believers by scholars trained in religious law. The basic idea is that the
clergy, by virtue of their superior knowledge of the laws of God, are the best qualified to
rule the society of believers who are preparing themselves on earth to live eternally in
heaven. The concept of velayat-e faqih thus provides the doctrinal basis for theocratic
government, an experiment that Twelver Imam Shias had not attempted prior to the
Iranian Revolution in 1979.
Distinctive Shia Rituals and Practices
In addition to the seven principal tenets of faith, there are also traditional religious
practices that are intimately associated with Shia Islam. These include the observance of
the month of martyrdom, Muharram, and pilgrimages to the shrines of the Twelve Imams
and their various descendants. The Muharram observances, which culminate on the
otherwise minor holiday of Ashura, commemorate the death of the Third Imam, Husayn,
the son of Ali and Fatima and the grandson of Muhammad. He was killed near Karbala in
modern Iraq in 680 CE during a battle with troops supporting the Umayyad caliph.
Husayn's death is commemorated by Shias with passion plays and is an intensely
religious time.
Pilgrimage to the shrines of Imams is a specific Shia custom. The most important
shrines in Iran are those for the Eighth Imam in Mashhad and for his sister Fatima in
Qom. There are also important secondary shrines for other relatives of the Eighth Iman in
Rey, adjacent to south Tehran, and in Shiraz. In virtually all towns and in many villages
there are numerous lesser shrines, known as imamzadehs, which commemorate
descendants of the imams who are reputed to have led saintly lives. Shia pilgrims visit
these sites because they believe that the imams and their relatives have power to intercede
with God on behalf of petitioners. The shrines in Iraq at Karbala and An Najaf are also
revered by Shias.
Shia and Sufism
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Shah Ismail, the founder of the Safavid dynasty, who established Twelver Shia Islam as
the official religion of Iran at the beginning of the sixteenth century, was revered by his
followers as a Sufi master. Sufism, or Islamic mysticism, has a long tradition in Iran. It
developed there and in other areas of the Islamic empire during the ninth century among
Muslims who believed that worldly pleasures distracted from true concern with the
salvation of the soul. Sufis generally renounced materialism, which they believed
supported and perpetuated political tyranny. Over time a great variety of Sufi
brotherhoods was formed, including several that were militaristic, such as the Safavid
order, of which Ismail was the leader.
Although Sufis were associated with the early spread of Shia ideas in the country, once
the Shia clergy had consolidated their authority over religion by the early seventeenth
century, they tended to regard Sufis as deviant. At various periods during the past three
centuries some Shia clergy have encouraged persecution of Sufis, but Sufi orders have
continued to exist in Iran. During the Pahlavi period, some Sufi brotherhoods were
revitalized. Some members of the secularized middle class were especially attracted to
them, but the orders appear to have had little following among the lower classes. The
largest Sufi order was the Nimatollahi, which had khanehgahs, or teaching centers, in
several cities and even established new centers in foreign countries. Other important
orders were the Dhahabi and Kharksar brotherhoods. Sufi brotherhoods such as the
Naqshbandi and the Qadiri also existed among Sunni Muslims in Kordestan. There is no
evidence of persecution of Sufis under the Republic, but the brotherhoods are regarded
suspiciously and generally have kept a low profile.
Unorthodox Shia Religious Movements
Iran also contains Shia sects that many of the Twelver Shia clergy regard as heretical.
One of these is the Ismaili, a sect that has several thousand adherents living primarily in
northeastern Iran. The Ismailis, of whom there were once several different sects, trace
their origins to the son of Ismail who predeceased his father, the Sixth Imam. The
Ismailis were very numerous and active in Iran from the eleventh to the thirteenth
century; they are known in history as the "Assassins" because of their practice of killing
political opponents. The Mongols destroyed their center at Alamut in the Alborz
Mountains in 1256. Subsequently, their living imams went into hiding from non-Ismailis.
In the nineteenth century, their leader emerged in public as the Agha Khan and fled to
British-controlled India, where he supervised the revitalization of the sect. The majority
of the several million Ismailis in the live outside Iran.
Another Shia sect is the Ahl-e Haqq. Its adherents are concentrated in Lorestan, but
small communities also are found in Kordestan and Mazandaran. The origins of the Ahl-e
Haqq are believed to lie in one of the medieval politicized Sufi orders. The group has
been persecuted sporadically by orthodox Shias. After the Revolution, some of the sect's
leaders were imprisoned on the ground of religious deviance.
“Religions and Belief Systems”. Religion Facts. 3February2014< http://www.religionfacts.com/>.
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JUDAISM
History of Judaism
What is the History of Judaism?
History is of the utmost importance in Judaism. Whereas the sacred texts of most
ancient religions focus on myths and philosophical concepts, the Jewish Bible is centered
around historical narrative; and most Jewish holidays are intended to connect modern
Jews with their historical ancestors and traditions.
This article provides an overview of Jewish history from the biblical era to the modern
day.
Historical and Religious Context
Judaism traces its history back to the creation of mankind, but the explicitly Jewish
historical origins begin with Abraham and the Hebrews. According to the Torah,
Abraham's home was the northern Mesopotamian town of Harran.
Under God's command, Abraham migrated to the region of Canaan, which is roughly
equivalent to modern Israel and Lebanon. For a time the Hebrews lived in servitude in
Egypt, then returned to Canaan.
The ancient Hebrew people were seminomadic herdsman and farmers, organized into
tribes and living in Mesopotamia. Contributions of nearby cultures include a West
Semitic concept of divine messengers, Old Babylonian and Hurro-Semite law,
Mesopotamian cosmogony and primitive history, Canaanite language and mythological
literature, and Egyptian hymns and wisdom literature.
All of these cultures featured belief in creator and preserver gods, a system of ethics, and
developed religious rituals. The head of the Canaanite pantheon was El, a powerful god
depicted as both judgmental and compassionate.
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Biblical Jewish History
The period of Jewish history designated by some historians as "Biblical Judaism" is the
centuries covered by the narratives of the Tanakh, from the creation and primitive history
of mankind to the last of the prophets in the 4th century BCE.
The Tanakh tells the history of the Hebrew people from a religious viewpoint, beginning
with the creation of mankind and ending with the words of the last of the prophets in the
4th century BCE. This period is often referred to by scholars as "Biblical Judaism." The
Tanakh follows the Hebrew nation as it experiences cycles of favor and discipline by
God. God establishes successive covenants with humanity (Adam, Noah and Abraham)
and issues an extensive set of laws (through Moses) by which the Hebrews are to be set
apart as God's people. When they stray, God sends prophets and invading armies to bring
them back to himself. "It is this particular claim-to have experienced God's presence in
human events-and its subsequent development that is the differentiating factor in Jewish
thought."
Abraham and the Patriarchs (19th or 18th century BCE)
The biblical book of Genesis begins with a single, all-powerful God creating the world
out of chaos in six days, with human beings created on the sixth day. Genesis goes on to
chronicle an ancient history in which mankind repeatedly turns away from God and to
immorality until God destroys the earth with a flood. God then makes a covenant with
Noah, the one man saved from the flood, that he will never destroy the earth again.
The specifically Hebrew element of biblical history begins with Abraham, who is
considered the founder of the Jewish religion. However, he does not discover God but is
rather called by the God who is already known into a covenant, in which God promises to
many descendents and the land of Canaan.
Modern scholarship has identified significant differences between the religion of
Abraham and the patriarchs and the later Israelite religion of Moses. Historians note that
the God of Abraham is referred to using generic, not specifically Israelite terms (namely,
various forms of El), the Mosaic issues of divine jealousy and idolatry are virtually
absent, and God's role is as a kind of patron deity who has bestowed his favor on
Abraham.
The religion of the patriarchs was simple, and centered on the agreement between
Abraham and God. Religious practice consisted of sacrifice and prayer at a sacred altar,
stone pillar, or sacred tree. Circumcision was the defining mark of the religious
community. Its eschatology was the promise of land and many descendents.
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From Egypt to Sinai: Moses and the Covenant
According to biblical tradition, a famine caused the Hebrew tribes to migrate to Egypt,
where they were enslaved. God rescued them from bondage by afflicting the Egyptians
with successive plagues then drowning the Egyptian army in the Red Sea to allow the
Hebrews to escape.
At Mount Sinai, God established the nation of Israel (named for Abraham's grandson
Jacob) as his own, and gave them the terms of his covenant with them. He then sustains
the Israelites through 40 years of journeying in the wilderness before leading them into
Canaan, the land promised to Abraham. Central to all these events is Moses, who, like
Muhammad, fulfills many leadership roles, including religious, political, legislative and
military.
This general sequence of events is accepted by most scholars as historically reliable. As
one source explains, "To disallow these events would make their centrality as articles of
faith in the later religious beliefs of Israel inexplicable."
Mosaic religion centers on the covenant between God and the people of Israel. The
covenant required exclusive loyalty to Yahweh, who rescued them from bondage in
Egypt. Worship of other gods, veneration of idols (even of Yahweh), and magical
practices are prohibited. Rituals and festivals are established to celebrate God's historical
and continuing provision.
Conquest of Canaan and the Judges
The conquest of Canaan is narrated in the biblical book of Joshua, with miraculous events
(walls fell at a shout, the sun stood still) rivaling those of the Exodus. The process of
occupation has been judged by scholars as more complex than that described in Joshua,
incorporating a combination of military victories and treaty agreements.
After the conquest of Canaan, Israel was led by leaders called "judges," during which
time the Israelites are described as repeatedly falling into idolatry and apostasy. Figurines
discovered in the Israelite levels of archeological digs in Palestine support such a report.
At the same time, numerous altars to the God of Israel sprung up, and the Levites rose to
the priesthood to conduct sacrifices at many of them. The ark of the covenant was housed
and carefully protected at the Shiloh sanctuary, which was staffed by priests of the family
of Eli.
The United Monarchy under Saul, David and Solomon
To maintain occupation of the Promised Land, it became necessary to have centralized
authority and organized armies that could hold off external enemies. Two diverging
views of the prospect of a monarchy arose: a rejection of God's kingship (1 Sam. 8-12) or
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a God-given way to defend Israel (1 Sam. 9:16). The former view is represented by the
prophet-judge Samuel, who reluctantly crowned the first king.
Saul, of the tribe of Benjamin, was made king (in c. 1020 BCE) after defeating the
Ammonites. He ruled from his hometown of Gibeah, a few miles north of Jerusalem.
Saul's reign was marred by conflicts with the prophet Samuel, who held ongoing
authority over the kingship. King David, Saul's successor, solved these problems by
combining religious and political authority in one person (David and his descendents) and
in one place (the city of Jerusalem).
David was succeeeded by his son Solomon, whose history is recorded in 1 Kings 1-11
and 2 Chronicles 1-9. Solomon succeeded his father on the throne in early manhood,
probably about sixteen or eighteen years of age. His father chose him as his successor,
passing over the claims of his elder sons. His elevation to the throne took place before his
father's death, and is hastened on mainly by Nathan and Bathsheba, in consequence of the
rebellion of Adonijah.
During Solomon's long reign of 40 years the Hebrew monarchy gained its highest
splendour. This period has well been called the "Augustan age" of the Jewish annals. In a
single year he collected tribute amounting to 666 talents of gold, according to 1 Kings
10:13. The first half of his reign was, however, by far the brighter and more prosperous;
the latter half was clouded by the idolatries into which he fell, mainly, accordingh to the
scribes, from his intermarriages. According to 1 Kings 11:3, he had 700 wives and 300
concubines. As soon as he had settled himself in his kingdom, and arranged the affairs of
his extensive empire, he entered into an alliance with Egypt by a marriage with the
daughter of Pharaoh.
The Divided Monarchy and Exile
After Solomon's reign the nation split into two kingdoms, Israel (in the north) and Judah
(in the south). Israel was conquered by the Assyrian ruler Shalmaneser V in the 8th
century BCE. The kingdom of Judah was conquered by a Babylonian army in the early
6th century BCE. The Judahite elite was exiled to Babylon, but later at least a part of
them returned to their homeland, led by prophets Ezra and Nehemiah, after the
subsequent conquest of Babylonia by the Persians. Already at this point the extreme
fragmentation among the Israelites was apparent, with the formation of political-religious
factions, the most important of which would later be called Sadduccees and Pharisees.
The Hasmonean Kingdom and the Destruction of the
Temple
After the Persians were defeated by Alexander the Great, his demise, and the division of
Alexander's empire among his generals, the Seleucid Kingdom was formed. A
deterioration of relations between hellenized Jews and religious Jews led the Seleucid
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king Antiochus IV Epiphanes to impose decrees banning certain Jewish religious rites
and traditions.
Consequently, the orthodox Jews revolted under the leadership of the Hasmonean family,
(also known as the Maccabees). This revolt eventually led to the formation of an
independent Jewish kingdom, known as the Hasmonaean Dynasty, which lasted from 165
BC to 63 BC. The Hasmonean Dynasty eventually disintegrated as a result of civil war
between the sons of Salome Alexandra, Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. The people, who
did not want to be governed by a king but by theocratic clergy, made appeals in this spirit
to the Roman authorities. A Roman campaign of conquest and annexation, led by
Pompey, soon followed.
Judea under Roman rule was at first an independent Jewish kingdom, but gradually the
rule over Judea became less and less Jewish, until it became under the direct rule of
Roman administration (and renamed the province of Judaea), which was often callous
and brutal in its treatment of its Judean subjects. In AD 66, Judeans began to revolt
against the Roman rulers of Judea. The revolt was defeated by the Roman emperors
Vesesapian and Titus Flavius. The Romans destroyed much of the Temple in Jerusalem
and, according to some accounts, stole artifacts from the temple, such as the Menorah.
Judeans continued to live in their land in significant numbers, and were allowed to
practice their religion, until the 2nd century when Julius Severus ravaged Judea while
putting down the bar Kokhba revolt. After 135, Jews were not allowed to enter the city of
Jerusalem, although this ban must have been at least partially lifted, since at the
destruction of the rebuilt city by the Persians in the 7th century, Jews are said to have
lived there.
Various responses developed to Roman rule, ranging from armed revolt (the Zealots) or
withdrawal from the world (the Essenes) to a renewed focus on preserving tradition in a
new situation (the Pharisees), to integration with Greek society (the Sadduccees) and
thought (Jewish Neoplatonists).
Rabbinical Judaism
Rabbinical Judaism developed out of the Pharasiac movement and in response to the
destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. The rabbis sought to reinterpret Jewish
concepts and practices in the absence of the Temple and for a people in exile. Aside from
some small side movements (such as the Karaites), Rabbinical Judaism was the dominant
form of the Jewish religion for nearly 18 centuries. It produced the Talmud, the Midrash,
and the great figures of medieval Jewish philosophy.
The Fall of Rome
The Eastern Roman Empire, under assault from barbarian invasion, passed a number of
laws in the early Middle Ages, including the legislation of Justinian which culminated in
the principle of taking away civil rights from heretics and unbelievers and of making their
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existence as difficult as possible. The restrictive laws of Constantine and Theodosius
were renewed with increased rigor. The public observance of their religion was forbidden
the Jews. The loss of their civil rights was followed by disregard for their personal
freedom. In the wars waged by the Iconoclasts (eighth and ninth centuries) the Jews
especially had to suffer, and mostly at the hands of iconoclastic emperors who were
suspected of being heretics with Jewish tendencies. Many Jews fled to the neighboring
states of the Slavs and Tatars, which were just coming into existence, and found refuge
and protection on the lower Volga and on the northern shores of the Black Sea in the
realm of the Khazars.
While the East-Roman empire was prolonging its inglorious existence by perpetual
warfare with neighbors who were ever growing stronger, the Western Roman Empire fell
prey to the barbarians. With the exception of the restrictive laws of the first Christian
emperors, which still remained in force, the Jews were not troubled on account of their
faith.
The Early Middle Ages
Not until the beginning of the ninth century did the Church succeed in drawing all
humanity within her jurisdiction, and in bringing together and definitely settling the
regulations in canonical law which the authority of the Church ordained for believers and
their treatment of non-believers. Intercourse with Jews was almost entirely forbidden to
believers, and thereby a chasm was created between the adherents of the two religions,
which could not be bridged.
On the other hand, the Church found herself compelled to make the Jew a fellow citizen
of the believer; for she enforced upon her own communities the Biblical prohibition
against usury; and thus the only way left open to her of conducting financial operations
was to seek loans at a legally determined rate of interest from the adherents of another
faith. Through these peculiar conditions the Jews rapidly acquired influence. At the same
time they were compelled to find their pleasures at home and in their own circles only.
Their sole intellectual food came from their own literature, to which they devoted
themselves with all the strength of their nature.
This was the general condition of the Jews in Western lands. Their fate in each particular
country depended on the changing political conditions. In Italy they experienced dark
days during the endless wars waged by the Heruli, Rugii, Ostrogoths, and Longobardi.
The severe laws of the Roman emperors were in general more mildly administered than
elsewhere; the Arian confession, of which the Germanic conquerors of Italy were
adherents, being in contrast with the Catholic characterized by its tolerance. Among the
Burgundians and Franks, who professed the Catholic faith, the ecclesiastical sentiment,
fortunately for the Jews, made but slow progress, and the Merovingian rulers rendered
only a listless and indifferent support to the demands of the Church, the influence of
which they had no inclination to increase.
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In the Pyrenean peninsula, from the most ancient times, Jews had lived peaceably in
greater numbers than in the land of the Franks. The same modest good fortune remained
to them when the Suevi, Alani, Vandals, and Visigoths occupied the land. It came to a
sudden end when the Visigothic kings embraced Catholicism and wished to convert all
their subjects to the same faith. Many Jews yielded to compulsion in the secret hope that
the severe measures would be of short duration. But they soon bitterly repented this hasty
step; for the Visigothic legislation insisted with inexorable severity that those who had
been baptized by force should remain true to the Christian faith. Consequently the Jews
eagerly welcomed the Arabs when the latter conquered the peninsula in 711.
Those Jews who still wished to remain true to the faith of their fathers were protected by
the Church herself from compulsory conversion. There was no change in this policy even
later, when the pope called for the support of the Carolingians in protecting his ideal
kingdom with their temporal power. Charlemagne, moreover, was glad to use the Church
for the purpose of welding together the loosely connected elements of his kingdom when
he transformed the old Roman empire into a Christian one, and united under the imperial
crown all the German races at that time firmly settled. When, a few decades after his
death, his world-empire fell apart (843), the rulers of Italy, France, and Germany left the
Church free scope in her dealings with the Jews, and under the influence of religious zeal
hatred toward the unbelievers ripened into deeds of horror.
The Crusades
The trials which the Jews endured from time to time in the different kingdoms of the
Christian West were only indications of the catastrophe which broke over them at the
time of the Crusades. A wild, unrestrained throng, for which the crusade was only an
excuse to indulge its rapacity, fell upon the peaceful Jews and sacrificed them to its
fanaticism. In the First Crusade (1096) flourishing communities on the Rhine and the
Danube were utterly destroyed. In the Second Crusade (1147) the Jews in France suffered
especially. Philip Augustus treated them with exceptional severity. In his days the Third
Crusade took place (1188); and the preparations for it proved to be momentous for the
English Jews. After unspeakable trials Jews were banished from England in 1290; and
365 years passed before they were allowed to settle again in the British Isles. The Jews
were also subjected to attacks by the Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320.
Persecution and Blood Libel
The justification for these deeds was found in crimes laid to the charge of the Jews. They
were held responsible for the crime imputed to them a thousand years before this; and the
false charge was circulated that they wished to dishonor the host which was supposed to
represent Jesus' body. They were further charged with being the cause of every calamity.
In 1240 the plundering raids of the Mongols were laid at their door. When, a hundred
years later, the Black Death raged through Europe, the tale was invented that the Jews
had poisoned the wells. The only court of appeal that regarded itself as their appointed
protector, according to historical conceptions, was the "Roman emperor of the German
nation." The emperor, as legal successor to Titus, who had acquired the Jews for his
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special property through the destruction of the Temple, claimed the rights of possession
and protection over all the Jews in the former Roman empire.
They thus became imperial "servi cameræ." He might present them and their possessions
to princes or to cities. That the Jews were not utterly destroyed was due to two
circumstances: (1) the envy, distrust, and greed of princes and peoples toward one
another, and (2) the moral strength which was infused into the Jews by a suffering which
was undeserved but which enabled them to resist persecution. The abilities which could
find no expression in the service of country or of humanity at large, were directed with all
the more zeal toward the study of the Bible and Talmud, toward ordering communal
affairs, toward building up a happy family life, and toward bettering the condition of the
Jewish race in general.
Expulsions
Everywhere in the Christian Occident an equally gloomy picture was presented. The
Jews, who were driven out of England in 1290, out of France in 1394, and out of
numerous districts of Germany, Italy, and the Balkan peninsula between 1350 and 1450,
were scattered in all directions, and fled preferably to the new Slavic kingdoms, where
for the time being other confessions were still tolerated. Here they found a sure refuge
under benevolent rulers and acquired a certain prosperity, in the enjoyment of which the
study of the Talmud was followed with renewed vigor. Together with their faith, they
took with them the German language and customs, which they have cultivated in a Slavic
environment with unexampled faithfulness up to the present time.
As in Slavic countries, so also under Muslim rule the persecuted Jews often found a
humane reception, especially from the eighth century onward in the Pyrenean peninsula.
But even as early as the thirteenth century the Arabs could no longer offer a real
resistance to the advancing force of Christian kings; and with the fall of political power
Arabic culture declined, after having been transmitted to the Occident at about the same
period, chiefly through the Jews in the north of Spain and in the south of France. At that
time there was no field of learning which the Spanish Jews did not cultivate. They studied
the secular sciences with the same zeal as the Bible and Talmud.
But the growing influence of the Church gradually crowded them out of this
advantageous position. At first the attempt was made to win them to Christianity through
writings and religious disputations; and when these attempts failed they were ever more
and more restricted in the exercise of their civil rights. Soon they were obliged to live in
separate quarters of the cities and to wear humiliating badges on their clothing. Thereby
they were made a prey to the scorn and hatred of their fellow citizens. In 1391, when a
fanatical mob killed thirty thousand Jews in Seville alone, many in their fright sought
refuge in baptism. And although they often continued to observe in secret the laws of
their fathers the Inquisition soon rooted out these pretended Christians or Maranos.
Thousands were thrown into prison, tortured, and burned, until a project was formed to
sweep all Spain clean of unbelievers. The plan matured when in 1492 the last Moorish
fortress fell into the hands of the Christians. Several hundred thousand Jews were forced
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from the country which had been their home for 1,500 years. Many of them fled to the
Balkan peninsula, where a few decades before the Crescent had won a victory over the
Cross through the Osmanli Turks. These exiles have faithfully preserved the language of
the country they were forced to leave; and to-day, after a lapse of more than 400 years,
Spanish is still the mother tongue of their descendants.
The Enlightenment and Haskalah
During the period of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, significant changes
were happening within the Jewish community. The Haskalah movement paralelled the
wider Enlightenment, as Jews began in the 1700s to campaign for emancipation from
restrictive laws and integration into the wider European society. Secular and scientific
education was added to the traditional religious instruction received by students, and
interest in a national Jewish identity, including a revival in the study of Jewish history
and Hebrew, started to grow. Haskalah gave birth to the Reform and Conservative
movements and planted the seeds of Zionism while at the same time encouraging cultural
assimilation into the countries in which Jews resided. At around the same time another
movement was born, one preaching almost the opposite of Haskalah, Hasidic Judaism.
Hasidic Judiasm began in the 1700s by Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov, and quickly gained a
following with its more exubarent, mystical approach to religion. These two movements,
and the traditional orthodox approach to Judiasm from which they spring, formed the
basis for the modern divisions within Jewish observance.
At the same time, the outside world was changing. Though persecution still existed in
some European countries (hundreds of thousands of Jews were killed in pogroms in the
18th and 19th centuries), Napoleon invited Jews to leave the Jewish ghettos in Europe
and seek refuge in the newly created tolerant political regimes that offered equality under
Napoleonic Law (see Napoleon and the Jews). At the same time, Jewish migration to the
United States (see Jews in the United States) created a new community in large part freed
of the restrictions of Europe.
The Holocaust
Anti-Semitism was common in Europe in the 1920s and 1930s (though its history extends
far back throughout many centuries during the course of
Judaism). Adolf Hitler's fanatical anti-Semitism was laid out
in his 1925 book Mein Kampf, largely ignored when it was
first printed, but which later became popular in Germany
once Hitler acquired political power.
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On April 1, 1933 the recently elected Nazis, under Julius Streicher, organized a one-day
boycott of all Jewish-owned businesses in Germany. This policy helped to usher-in a
series of anti-Semitic acts that would eventually culminate in the Holocaust. The last
remaining Jewish enterprises in Germany were closed on July
6, 1939. In many cities throughout Europe, Jews had been
living in concentrated areas. During the first years of World
War II, the Nazis formalized the borders of these areas and
restricted movement, creating modern ghettos to which Jews
were confined. The ghettos were, in effect, prisons in which
many Jews died from hunger and disease; others were
executed by the Nazis and their collaborators. Concentration
camps for Jews existed in Germany itself. During the invasion
of the Soviet Union, over 3,000 special killing units
(Einsatzgruppen) followed the Wehrmacht and conducted
mass killings of Communist officials and of the Jewish
population that lived on Soviet territory. Entire communities
were wiped out by being rounded up, robbed of their
possessions and clothing, and shot at the edges of ditches.
In December 1941, Hitler finally decided to exterminate
European Jews. In January 1942, during the Wannsee conference, several Nazi leaders
discussed the details of the "Final Solution of the Jewish question" (Endlösung der
Judenfrage). Dr. Josef Buhler urged Reinhard Heydrich to proceed with the Final
Solution in the General Government. They began to systematically deport Jewish
populations from the ghettos and all occupied territories to the seven camps designated as
Vernichtungslager, or extermination camps: Auschwitz, Belzec, Chelmno, Majdanek,
Maly Trostenets, Sobibór and Treblinka II.
Holocaust Aftermath and the State of Israel
The Holocaust and its aftermath left millions of refugees, including many Jews who had
lost most or all of their family members and posessions, and often faced persistent antiSemitism in their home countries. The need to find a homeland for the Jewish refugees
led to many of them fervently joining the Zionist movement. Many Zionists, pointing to
the fact that Jewish refugees from Germany and Nazi-occupied lands had been turned
away by other countries, argued that if a Jewish state had existed at the time, the
Holocaust could not have occurred on the scale it did.
The sudden rapid growth of Zionism and the post-Holocaust displacement resulted in the
emigration of a great many Jews to what became the modern State of Israel soon after.
This immigration had a direct effect on the regional Arabs, many of whom firmly
opposed a Jewish state in the Middle East. Some would say this stemmed from a lack of
understanding of a need for a Jewish Homeland. While the Holocaust stands as a
reminder that modern, "civilized" nations can engage in the most horrific of organized
group behavior, it is also important to remember that during the Holocaust, many nonJews risked (and often lost) their lives attempting to aid Jews and other victims of Nazi
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persecution, for no conceivable gain other than to satisfy their own consciences. In order
to recognize these examples of the most noble of human behaviors among the most
debased, the Israeli government through the Yad Vashem Holocaust Memorial set up a
Righteous gentiles program to honor and memorialize as many of these heroic individuals
as can be found.
Overview of Judaism
What is Judaism?
Judaism is one of the oldest religions still existing today. It began as the religion of the
small nation of the Hebrews and through thousands of years of suffering, persecution,
dispersion, and occasional victory, has continued to be a profoundly influential religion
and culture.
Today, 14 million people identify themselves as Jews, and nearly 3.5 billion others
follow belief systems directly influenced by Judaism (including Christianity, Islam, and
the Bah'ai Faith). Modern Judaism is a complex phenomenon that incorporates both a
nation and a religion, and often combines strict adherence to ritual laws with a more
liberal attitude towards religious belief.
Beliefs of Judaism
The central religious belief of Judaism is that there is only one God. Monotheism was
uncommon at the time Judaism was born, but according to Jewish tradition, God himself
revealed it to Abraham, the ancestor of the Jewish people. Beginning with Abraham, God
has always taken special care of the Hebrews (who would later become the Jews). After
rescuing them from slavery in Egypt, God revealed the Ten Commandments to Moses,
and many more religious and ethical guidelines in the Torah ("the Law"). Many of the
guidelines (mitzvah) emphasized ritual purity and the importance of remaining set apart
from the surrounding polytheistic cultures.
Aside from its staunch monotheism, Judaism has few essential beliefs. Jewish identity
arises primarily from belonging to an ancient people and upholding its traditions. Dogma,
while important, is secondary. Although the medieval thinker Rabbi Maimonides once
enumerated "13 Articles of Faith," many Jews do not accept all these, and Jewish beliefs
vary widely on theological matters such as human nature and the afterlife.
Divisions in Judaism
Divisions within Judaism, known as "movements," have developed in modern times as
varying responses to secularism and modernity. Orthodox Judaism is the most
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conservative group, retaining nearly all traditional rituals and practices. At the opposite
end of the spectrum, Reform Jews retain their Jewish identity and some traditions but
take a liberal approach to many Jewish beliefs and practices. Conservative Judaism lies in
the middle of the spectrum, taking a moderate approach in its application of Judaism to
the modern world.
Jews of all movement celebrate many special days throughout the year and throughout
each person's life. Major religious holidays include Passover, Rosh Hashanah and Yom
Kippur. Hanukkah, historically a minor holiday, has become more prominent in the last
century for Jews who live in areas that celebrate Christmas. The Sabbath, a day of rest
and worship at the synagogue, is observed each Saturday. In Judaism, all days begin at
sunset, so all holidays begin at sundown and end at sundown.
Events in Judaism
To recognize the role of God and the Jewish community in each person's life, numerous
life cycle events are observed with traditional rituals. At the first Sabbath after the birth
of a child, the proud father is called forward in the synagogue to recite blessings for
mother and child. Eight days after birth, baby boys are circumcised.
At the age of 13 (12 for girls), a boy becomes a Bar Mitzvah, or "Son of the
Commandment" and a girl becomes a Bat Mitzvah, "Daughter of the Commandment."
The occasion is marked by the youth's first public reading of the Torah in the synagogue
(only boys may do this in Orthodox congregations), followed by a large and joyous
celebration.
Jewish wedding ceremonies incorporate many ancient traditions and symbolic gestures
(including the well-known breaking of glass), and divorces are obtained within the
Jewish community. At death, a Jewish person's body is cared for by the chevra kiddisha,
the "holy society," who wash the body and prepare it for burial. The deceased is treated
with great respect and never left alone. After burial, the deceased's loved ones enter a
formal period of mourning, which decreased gradually over the course of a year. The
dead is then remembered and honored each year on the anniversary of death.
In addition to these special days and ceremonies, the Jewish life is marked by regular
religious observance. Each Saturday, Sabbath is observed by ceasing work and spending
the day in worship at the synagogue and at home with family. The study of Torah and
other Jewish scriptures is considered very important, and many Jewish children attend
Hebrew school so they can study it in its original language. In everyday life, traditional
Jews observe the laws of kashrut, eating only foods that God has designated "kosher."
Among non-kosher, or prohibited, foods are pork, any meat that has not been ritually
slaughtered, shellfish, and any meal that combines dairy with meat.
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Jewish Beliefs
What Do Jews Believe?
Unlike Christianity and Islam, Judaism has no official creed or universal doctrinal
requirements for membership. In general, a person can be considered "Jewish" whether
he adheres to a complete system of beliefs about God and the afterlife, holds only a few
simple beliefs that give meaning to ritual, or even (at least in liberal Judaism) does not
believe in God at all.
This diversity in Jewish belief arises in part because actions (good deeds and the mitzvot),
not beliefs, are the most important aspect of Jewish religious life. In addition, the term
"Jewish" can be used to describe a race and a culture rather than a religion, so some who
identify themselves as Jewish may have little interest in the beliefs and practices
associated with the religion of Judaism.
Nevertheless, the Torah and Talmud have a great deal to say about God, humanity, and
the meaning of life, and Jewish history has seen significant theological and mystical
inquiry into religious concepts. These beliefs are of great significance not only for
Judaism itself, but also for their direct influence on Christianity and Islam, currently the
two largest religions in the world.
The 13 Articles of Faith
As noted above, Judaism has no creed and beliefs of individual Jews can vary widely.
However, the great 12th-century rabbi Maimonides put together "13 Articles of Faith"
that he believed every Jew ought to adhere to, and this is often used as a summary of
core Jewish beliefs.
Jewish Beliefs about God
In Judaism, ultimate reality is a single, all-powerful God. It is this belief that made the
Jews unique among other ancient Semitic peoples and that became the legacy Judaism
has passed on to the entire Western world. God's name in Hebrew is YHWH, which
simply - but significantly - means "I am."
Jewish Beliefs about the Messiah
Many of the world's religions have hope in a future heroic figure who will rescue the
righteous, judge the wicked, and restore peace to the world (Krishna in Hinduism,
Maitreya in Buddhism and the Second Coming of Christ in Christianity). In Judaism,
this figure is the Messiah.
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Jewish Beliefs about Human Nature
When Genesis 2:7 says "God formed man," it uses the Hebrew word vayyitzer
("formed"). The Talmud finds special meaning in the unique spelling of the word in this
context, with two yods instead of one. The two yods, the rabbis explain, stand for the
two impulses found in humans: the yetzer tov and the yetzer ra.
Olam Ha-Ba: Jewish Beliefs about the Afterlife
Jewish sacred texts and literature have little to say about what happens after death,
which may seem surprising to non-Jews since the sacred texts of Christianity and Islam,
both of which have their foundations in Judaism, elaborate rather fully about the
afterlife.
The Thirteen Articles of Faith
What does Judaism teach and believe?
Many of the "Beliefs" sections on ReligionFacts begin with an official list of essential
beliefs agreed upon by all orthodox followers of the faith. But as noted in the
introduction, Judaism has no such list.
Rabbi Maimonides and his signature.
Image: Jewish Encyclopedia.
However, the great 12th-century Rabbi Maimonides put together "13 Articles of Faith"
that he believed every Jew ought to adhere to. These have been widely accepted as a
proper expression of the Jewish faith and they still appear in Jewish prayer books today.
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So while it is not necessary to believe all of these articles to be Jewish (and in fact many
Jews would likely question one or more of the articles) they serve as a good general
summary of religious Judaism.
The 13 Articles of the Jewish Faith proposed by Maimonides are these:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
God exists
God is one and unique
God is incorporeal
God is eternal
Prayer is to God only.
The prophets spoke truth.
Moses was the greatest of the prophets.
The Written and Oral Torah were given to Moses.
There will be no other Torah.
God knows the thoughts and deeds of men.
God will reward the good and punish the wicked.
The Messiah will come.
The dead will be resurrected.
These beliefs are discussed at greater length in the articles that follow.
Jewish Beliefs about God
What does Judaism teach about God?
In Judaism, ultimate reality is a single, all-powerful God. It is this belief that made the
Jews unique among other ancient Semitic peoples and that became the legacy Judaism
has passed on to the entire Western world.
The sacred name of God, as revealed to Moses in the book of Exodus, is YHWH. Since
ancient Hebrew was written without vowels, we do not know the original pronunciation
of this word. The common pronunciation "Jehovah," however, is incorrect. It is derived
from combining the vowels for Adonai ("Lord") with the four consonants of YHWH.
A more "correct" pronunciation, and that which is used among scholars, is "Yahweh."
The discussion is irrelevant to observant Jews, however, as they do not pronounce this
holiest of names. When the Torah is read aloud, Adonai ("Lord") is read in its place. This
practice is reflected in most English translations, in which YHWH is rendered "LORD."
Jews also refer to God as Hashem, "the Name."
The word YHWH is sometimes referred to as the Tetragrammaton, from the Greek for
"four-lettered." It is also called The Forbidden Name or the Unutterable Name. The
prohibition against pronouncing this name does not originate with the command to not
take the Lord's name in vain, as is sometimes thought.
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Although traditionally this only applies to the Name in Hebrew, some modern Jews also
refrain from writing the word "God," replacing it instead with "G-d." Opinions vary
within Judaism as to the necessity of such a practice.
The Messiah in Judaism
Who is the Messiah?
Many of the world's religions have hope in a future heroic figure who will rescue the
righteous, judge the wicked, and restore peace to the world (Krishna in Hinduism,
Maitreya in Buddhism and the Second Coming in Christianity). In Judaism, this figure is
the messiah. Christians believe the messiah has come in the form of Jesus of Nazareth;
Jews emphatically do not.
Identity of the Messiah
The concept of the messiah seems to have developed in later Judaism. The Torah
contains no specific reference to him, though some Jewish scholars have pointed out that
it does speak of the "End of Days," which is the time of the messiah.
The Tanakh gives several specifications as to who the messiah will be. He will be a
descendent of King David (2 Samuel 7:12-13; Jeremiah 23:5), observant of Jewish law
(Isaiah 11:2-5), a righteous judge (Jeremiah 33:15), and a great military leader.
Jews do not believe that the messiah will be divine. A fundamental difference between
Judaism and Christianity is the Jewish conviction that God is so essentially different from
and beyond humanity that he could never become a human.
Moreover, Jews find no foundation in the scriptures for such a belief about the messiah.
Passages viewed by Christians as indicating a divine messiah (such as the suffering
servant of Isaiah 53) are viewed by Jews as speaking of the people of Israel. In general,
only the following passages are accepted as referring to the messiah:








Isaiah 2, 11, 42; 59:20
Jeremiah 23, 30, 33; 48:47; 49:39
Ezekiel 38:16
Hosea 3:4-3:5
Micah 4
Zephaniah 3:9
Zechariah 14:9
Daniel 10:14
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When Will the Messiah Come?
The "when" of the messiah's arrival is not made clear in the Tanach, and has been a
source of much scholarly speculation. In general, attempts to predict the exact date are
discouraged. Though millennial fervor has never been as strong in Judaism as it has been
in Christian and Islamic movements, there have been those who either claimed to be the
messiah or to know the date of the messiah's arrival. One notable example of the former
is Shabbatai Tzvi, a 17th-century man who claimed to the messiah, then converted to
Islam under threat of death.
A wide variety of opinions have been given by Jewish scholars as to the circumstances
that will prompt the messiah's arrival. Some say the messiah will come when the world is
especially good; others say when the world has become especially evil. The biblical clues
that are offered suggest the messiah will come after a period of war and suffering
(Ezekiel 38:16).
The Messianic Age
When the messiah does come, he will inaugurate the messianic age (sometimes called the
Olam Ha-Ba, World to Come). The Tanakh employs the following descriptions about this
period:






Peace among all nations (Isaiah 2:4; Micah 4:3)
Perfect harmony and abundance in nature (Isaiah 11:6-9) (but some interpret this as an allegory for
peace and prosperity)
All Jews return from exile to Israel (Isaiah 11:11-12; Jeremiah 23:8; 30:3; Hosea 3:4-5)
Universal acceptance of the Jewish God and Jewish religion (Isaiah 2:3; 11:10; 66:23; Micah 4:23; Zechariah 14:9)
No sin or evil; all Israel will obey the commandments (Zephaniah 3:13; Ezekiel 37:24)
Reinstatement of the Temple (Ezekiel 37:26-27)
Ezekiel 37:24-28 sums up many of these requirements when it proclaims:
And David my servant shall be king over them; and they shall all have one shepherd. they shall also follow
my judgments and observe my statutes, and do them. And they shall dwell in the land that I have given to
Yaakov my servant, in which your fathers have dwelt and they shall dwell there, they and their children,
and their children's children forever; and my servant David shall be their prince forever.
Moreover, I will make a covenant of peace with them, it shall be an everlasting covenant with them, which
I will give them; and I will multiply them and I will set my sanctuary in the midst of them forevermore.
And my tabernacle shall be with them: and I will be their God and they will be my people. Then the nations
shall know that I am the Lord who sanctifies Israel, when My sanctuary will be in the midst of them
forevermore.
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Jewish Beliefs about Human Nature
What does Judaism teach aboout human nature?
A fundamental Jewish belief about human beings is that they are created in the image
of God. This does not mean that people look like God, for God is incorporeal. The
general rabbinical interpretation of this concept is that humans have the ability to reason.
When Genesis 2:7 says "God formed man," it uses the Hebrew word vayyitzer
("formed"). The Talmud finds special meaning in the unique spelling of the word in this
context, with two yods instead of one. The two yods, the rabbis explain, stand for the two
impulses found in humans: the yetzer tov and the yetzer ra.
According to this view, the yetzer tov is the moral conscience that reminds a person of
God's law when one considers a specific action or choice. The yetzer ra is the impulse to
satisfy one's own needs and desires. There is nothing intrinsically evil about the yetzer ra,
as it was created by God and is natural to humankind. It is also what drives us to good
things such as eating, drinking, having a family, and making a living. However, it can
easily lead to sin when not kept in check by the yetzer tov.
The idea of human free will is fundamental to Judaism. The concept of original sin is
rejected, and every person has the ability to choose good or evil.
The following rabbinical teaching is illustrative of the Jewish view of the soul:
This may be compared to the case of a king who had an orchard containing excellent early figs, and he
placed there two watchmen, one lame and the other blind. He said to them: "Be careful with these fine early
figs." After some days the lame man said to the blind one: "I see fine early figs in the orchard." Said the
blind man to him: "Come let us eat them." "Am I then able to walk?" said the lame man. "Can I then see?"
retorted the blind man. The lame man got astride the blind man, and thus they ate the early figs and sat
down again each in his place.
After some days the king came into that vineyard and said to them: "Where are the fine early figs?" The
blind man replied: "My lord, the king, can I then see?" The lame man replied: "My lord the king, can I then
walk?" What did the king, who was a man of insight, do with them? He placed the lame man astride the
blind man, and they began to move about. Said the king to them: "Thus have you done, and eaten the early
figs."
Even so will the Holy One, blessed be God, in the time to come, say to the soul: "Why have you sinned
before Me?" and the soul will answer: O Master of the universe, it is not I that sinned, but the body it is that
sinned. Why, since leaving it, I am like a clean bird flying through the air. As for me, how have I sinned?"
God will also say to the body: "Why have you sinned before Me?" and the body will reply: "O Master of
the universe, not I have sinned, the soul it is that has sinned. Why, since it left me, I am cast about like a
stone thrown upon the ground. Have I then sinned before You?"
What will the Holy One, blessed be God, do to them? God will bring the soul and force it into the body,
and judge both as one.
(Leviticus Rabbah 4:5)
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Jewish Beliefs on the Afterlife
What does Judaism teach about the afterlife?
Jewish sacred texts and literature have little to say about what happens after death. This
may seem surprising to non-Jews, since the sacred texts of Christianity and Islam (both of
which have their foundations in Judaism) elaborate rather fully about the afterlife.
But Judaism is much more focused on actions than beliefs, so it is actually to be expected
that its prophets and sages have not spent as much time on speculations about the world
to come as elaborations on the mitzvot to be performed in this life.
The Torah and Talmud alike focus on the purpose of earthly life, which is to fulfill one's
duties to God and one's fellow man. Succeeding at this brings reward, failing at it brings
punishment. Whether rewards and punishments continue after death, or whether anything
at all happens after death, is not as important.
Despite the subject's general exclusion from the Jewish sacred texts, however, Judaism
does incorporate views on the afterlife. Yet unlike the other monotheistic religions, no
one view has ever been officially agreed upon, and there is much room for speculation.
This section will begin with a look at biblical texts addressing the afterlife, then explore
various Jewish views on subjects such as the resurrection of the dead, judgment, heaven
and hell, and the messianic age.
The Hebrew word Olam Ha-Ba ("the world to come") is used for both the messianic age
(see below) and the afterlife (see Gan Eden, below). The world to come is important and
something to look forward to. A Mishnah passage says, "This world is like a lobby before
the Olam Ha-Ba. Prepare yourself in the lobby so that you may enter the banquet hall."
The tractate Moed Katan teaches, "This world is only like a hotel. The world to come is
like a home."
Yet it is also emphasized that this world provides the ability and privilege of doing good
works and performing the mitzvot: "Rabbi Yaakov also used to say, 'Better one hour in
repentance and good deeds in this world than all the life in the world to come. And better
one hour of tranquility of spirit in the world to come than all the life of this world.'"
(Pirkei Avos, Chapters of the Fathers)
The Afterlife in the Torah
For the most part, the Torah describes the afterlife in vague terms, many of which may
simply be figurative ways of speaking about death as it is observed by the living.
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An early common theme is that death means rejoining one's ancestors. Abraham, Isaac,
Jacob, Moses, and other patriarchs are "gathered to their people" after death (see Gen.
25:8, 25:17, 35:29, 49:33; Deut. 42:50; 2 Ki. 22:20). In contrast, the wicked are "cut off
(kareit) from their people" (Gen. 17:14; Ex. 31:14). Other imagery emphasizes the
finality of death: the dead are like dust returning to dust (Genesis; Ecc. 3:19-20) or water
poured out on the ground (2 Samuel 14:14).
Another recurring biblical image of the afterlife is as a shadowy place called Sheol. It is a
place of darkness (Psalm 88:13, Job 10:21, 22) and silence (Psalm 115:17), located in
low places (Numbers 16:30, Ezekiel 31:14, Psalm 88:7, Lamentations 3:55; Jonah 2:7,
Job 26:5). In 1 Samuel 2:6, God puts people in She'ol. In Isaiah 14:9-10, the departed in
Sheol rise up to greet leaders who have now been brought low as they are. The author of
Psalm 88 laments his impending death with these words:
I am sated with misfortune; I am at the brink of Sheol.
I am numbered with those who go down to the Pit;
I am a helpless man
abandoned among the dead,
like bodies lying in the grave
of whom You are mindful no more,
and who are cut off from Your care.
You have put me at the bottom of the Pit,
in the darkest places, in the depths.
(Psalm 88:4-7)
Taken together, these early biblical descriptions of death seem to indicate that the soul
continues to exist in some way after death, but not consciously. Later in the Torah, the
concept of conscious life after death begins to develop. Daniel 12:2 declares, "And many
of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life and some
to reproaches and everlasting abhorrence." Neh. 9:5.
Tehiyat Hameitim: Resurrection of the Dead
More developed concepts of the resurrection of the dead and afterlife seem to have
entered Judaism under Hellenistic influence after the Torah was completed. It became
one of the fundamental beliefs in rabbinic Judaism, the intellectual successors of the
Pharisees. The Sadduccees, familiar to New Testament readers as those who denied the
resurrection, were an exception. As seen above, the resurrection of the dead is one of
Maimonides' "13 Articles of Belief," and the frequently-recited Shemoneh Esrei prayer
contains several references to the resurrection.
How this resurrection might occur has been a matter of speculation. Rabbi Hiyya ben
Joseph suggested that "the dead will come up through the ground and rise up in
Jerusalem... and the righteous will rise up fully clothed" (Babylonian Talmud, tractate
Ketubot 111b). Saadia ben Yosef al-Fayyumi (892-942 C.E.), the head of the academy of
Sura, offered this explanation:
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Even fire, which causes things to be burned so quickly, merely effects the separation of the parts of a
thing...causing the dust part to return to ashes....It does not however, bring about the annihilation of
anything. Nor is it conceivable that anyone should have the power to annihilate anything to the point where
it would vanish completely except its Creator, who produced it out of nothing.
Since then the matter can be thus explained, in view of the fact that none of the constituent parts of the
human being who has been devoured could have been annihilated, they must all have been set aside,
wheresoever they may have taken up, whether it be on land or sea, until such time as they are restored in
their entirety. Nor would such restoration be any more remarkable than their original creation.
Today, most traditional Jewish movements accept the concept of the resurrection of the
dead. A notable exception is Reform Judaism, which official rejects the doctrine.
Judgment
Traditional Judaism includes belief in both heaven and hell, as we will see below. How is
one's destination decided? The School of Shammai offered this description:
There will be three groups on the Day of Judgment: one of thoroughly righteous people, one of thoroughly
wicked people and one of people in between. The first group will be immediately inscribed for everlasting
life; the second group will be doomed in Gehinnom [Hell], as it says, "And many of them that sleep in the
dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life and some to reproaches and everlasting abhorrence"
[Daniel 12:2], the third will go down to Gehinnom and squeal and rise again, as it says, "And I will bring
the third part through the fire, and will refine them as silver is refined, and will try them as gold is tried.
They shall call on My name and I will answer them" [Zechariah 13:9]... [Babylonian Talmud, tractate Rosh
Hashanah 16b-17a]
The school of Hillel suggested a more merciful view, in which the middle group are sent
directly to Gan Eden (Heaven) instead of Gehinnom after death. Rabbi Hanina added that
all who go down to Gehinnom will go up again, except adulterers, those who put their
fellows to shame in public, and those who call their fellows by an obnoxious name
[Babylonian Talmud, tractate Baba Metzia 58b].
The Talmud teaches that all Israel will have a share in Olam Ha-Ba, but makes some
notable exceptions:
All Israelites have a share in the world-to-come... [However], these are they that have no share in the
world-to-come: one who says there is no resurrection of the dead prescribed in the Torah, and that the
Torah is not from Heaven, and an Epicurean. (Sanhedrin 10:1)
General Jewish belief is that one need not be Jewish to enjoy Heaven. "Moses
Maimonides, echoing the Tosefta to Sanhedrin, maintained that the pious of all the
nations of the world have a portion in the world-to-come [Mishneh Torah, Repentance
3:5]."
Gan Eden: Heaven
In Judaism, the eternal destination for the righteous is Gan Eden (the Garden of Eden). It
is generally described as a place of great joy and peace. Talmudic imagery includes:
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sitting at golden banquet tables (Babylonian Talmud, tractate Taanit 25a) or at stools of
gold (Babylonian Talmud, tractate Ketubot 77b), enjoying lavish banquets (Babylonian
Talmud, tractate Baba Batra 75a), or celebrating the Sabbath, enjoying sunshine and
sexual intercourse (Babylonian Talmud, tractate Berachot 57b).
On the other hand, other sages have offered a more spiritual view of Gad Eden. Rav
suggested that there will be neither eating nor drinking; no procreation of children or
business transactions, no envy or hatred or rivalry; but sitting enthroned, their crowns on
their heads, enjoying the Shechinah [Babylonian Talmud, tractate Berachot 17a (3rd
century CE)] . Maimonides agreed, explaining:
In the world to come, there is nothing corporeal, and no material substance; there are only souls of the
righteous without bodies -- like the ministering angels... The righteous attain to a knowledge and realization
of truth concerning God to which they had not attained while they were in the murky and lowly body.
(Mishneh Torah, Repentance 8)
Gehinnom: Hell
The Jewish concept of the afterlife for the wicked is less developed. Known as
Gehinnom (Gehenna in Yiddish) or Sheo'l, it has its foundations in the dark pit described
in the Torah (see above) and an actual place where a pagan cult conducted rituals
included burning children (see the description in II Kings 23:10 and Jeremiah 7:31).
Gehinnom is the postmortem destination of unrighteous Jews and Gentiles. In one
reference, the souls in Gehinnom are punished for up to 12 months. After the appropriate
period of purification, the righteous continue on to Gan Eden (Rabbi Akiba and
Babylonian Talmud, tractate Eduyot 2:10). The wicked endure the full year of
punishment then are either annihilated ("After 12 months, their body is consumed and
their soul is burned and the wind scatters them under the soles of the feet of the righteous
(Rosh Hashanah 17a)") or continue to be punished.
This belief is the basis for the Jewish practice of mourning and asking blessings on
deceased loved ones for only 11 months (one would not wish to imply that the departed
needed the full 12 months of purification).
The Messianic Age
The messianic age is a period in human history that will be initiated when the messiah
comes. At that time the righteous dead will be resurrected, but the wicked will not. The
messianic age will be a time of peace and the restoration of the land and organizations of
Israel.
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Jewish Holidays and Festivals
What are the Jewish Holidays?
Like the rituals marking important events in the life cycle of each Jewish person,
holidays and festivals are an important part of Jewish life.
They help to keep tradition alive, contribute to a sense of community and belonging,
remind believers of important historical events, and ensure regular reflection and
celebration of the sacred.
The most important Jewish holy days are the Sabbath, the three pilgrimage festivals
(Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot) and the two High Holy Days (Rosh Hashanah and Yom
Kippur). It is forbidden to work on any of these days.
Jewish Calendar
Purim
This page contains information on the dates Purim is a joyful spring Jewish holiday that
of Jewish holidays froom 2013-2016.
features a festive meal, gift-giving, costumes,
and noisemakers in the synagogue,
commemorating Esther.
Shabbat (the Sabbath)
Many people know that the Sabbath is
Saturday, the day of the week on which
Jewish New Year (Rosh Hashanah)
Jews are forbidden to work. From the
Rosh Hashanah means "head of the year" and
Jewish perspective, the Sabbath is not about is commonly known as the Jewish New Year.
rules but about joyful celebration and rest. This Jewish holiday is a solemn and holy
time.
Days of Awe
The Days of Awe are the 10 days from the Festival of Booths (Sukkot)
beginning of Rosh Hashanah to the end of Sukkoth is known by several names: the
Yom Kippur. This time, which occurs in the "Festival of the Ingathering" (Khag ha-Asif),
autumn, is devoted to introspection,
the "Festival of Booths" (Khag ha-Sukkot);
repentance, and atonement for sin.
"The Festival" (Khag), and the "Season of
Rejoicing" (Zeman Simkhateinu).
Hanukkah (the Festival of Lights)
This Jewish holiday is not the "Jewish
15th of Shevat (Tu B'Shevat)
Christmas" - it historically predates
The Jewish holiday Tu B'Shevat, or the "15th
Christmas and is an entirely different
of Shevat," is the New Year for Trees. It is
celebration.
the day chosen to count the age of a newlyplanted tree for the purposes of obeying a
Levitical law.
Passover (Pesach)
Passover is a spring holiday in Judaism,
which commemorating the Exodus - the
The Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur)
liberation of the Hebrews from slavery in
Yom Kippur, celebrated on the 10th day of
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Egypt in the time of Moses.
Tishri, is the most important and solemn of
Jewish holidays. Yom Kippur is the occasion
on which otherwise non-observant Jews are
most likely to attend synagogue, refrain from
work, or fast.
The Jewish Calendar
The Jewish calendar is significantly different from the calendar with which most
westerners are familiar. This is primarily because the Jewish calendar is lunar, or based
on the cycles of the moon. The Gregorian calendar is solar, based on the cycles of the
sun.
The Jewish Year
A lunar year has twelve months of either 29 or 30 days each, which yields a 354-day
year. To ensure the same festivals always fall in the same season each year, an additional
month (Adar II) is added seven times in every nineteen years to make up the difference.
Determining what marks a new year is a bit complicated. Based on Exodus 12:2, Nisan
is considered the first month of the year. However, the year number changes on Rosh
Hashanah, which is on the first of Tishrei, the seventh month of the religious year. Then
there is Tu B'Shvat (15 Shvat), which is the new year "for trees."
The best way to understand this is that the Jewish calendar simply has different "years"
for different purposes, just as the secular world recognizes as fiscal year, a school year
and a calendar year. The bottom line: Nisan is the first month on the Jewish calendar and
Rosh Hashanah (on 1 Tishrei) is the "Jewish New Year."
The year number on a Jewish calendar is based on a traditional date of creation, based
on adding up the geneaologies in the Tanakh. The Jewish year 5764 began on September
27, 2003. For convenience, many Jews use the Christian dating of years, but with the
designation CE (Common or Christian Era) instead of AD (anno domini, "in the year of
our Lord"). To use the latter expression, even in abbreviation, would be to falsely (and
blasphemously) imply faith in Jesus as Lord.
Jewish Months
Each Jewish month begins with the new moon, which is called the Rosh Khodesh (Head
of the Month). Rosh Khodesh was a major holiday in the First Temple period, celebrated
with special sacrifices and feasts, but it was downgraded to a minor holiday after the
Babylonian exile and not generally recognized today.
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The months of the Jewish calendar are as follows:
Number of Days
Gregorian Equivalent
Holidays in This Month
Nisan
30
March-April
Passover (15th)
Iyar
29
April-May
Sivan
30
May-June
Tammuz
29
June-July
Av
30
July-August
Elul
29
August-September
Tishri
30
September-October
Kheshvan
29 or 30
October-November
Kislev
29 or 30
November-December
Tevet
29
December-January
Shevat
30
January-February
Tu b'Shevat (15th)
Adar
29 (30 in a leap year)
February-March
Purim (14th)
Adar II
(29 in a leap year)
March-April
Purim (14th; leap year only)
Shavuot (6th)
Tisha b'Av (9th)
Rosh Hashanah (1st)
Yom Kippur (10th)
Sukkot (15th)
Hanukkah (25th)
Jewish Days
Finally, the Jewish day begins and ends at sunset. Thus the Sabbath begins not at
midnight Saturday morning but on Friday at sundown and the first Hanukkah candle is lit
on the night of 24 Kislev.
Jewish Denominations
Differences between Jewish denominations, which are more commonly known as
"movements," reflect varying responses to changing times and cultures.
The historical Jewish movements (Pharisses, Sadduccees, and Essenes) were responses to
the Roman rule of Israel, while the major modern movements (Reform, Orthodox, and
Conservative) are responses to the modern, secular culture of Europe and America.
Thus, while Christian denominations differ chiefly in matters of doctrine, Jewish
denominations differ from one another primarily with regard to practice.
Hasidism and Kabbalah are mystical approaches to the Jewish faith. Like monasticism in
Christianity and Sufism in Islam, Jewish mysticism emphasizes inward, spiritual
experiences over intellectual and rational knowledge.
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This section explores the major modern Jewish movements: Orthodox, Reform,
Conservative, Hasidism, and Kabbalah.
Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism is the most traditional expression of modern Judaism.
Orthodox Jews believe the entire Torah - including "Written," the the
Pentateuch, and "Oral," the Talmud) was given to Moses by God at Sinai and
remains authoritative for modern life in its entirety. According to a 1990 nationwide
survey, 7 percent of American Jews are Orthodox. American and Canadian Orthodox
Jews are organized under the Orthodox Union, which serves 1,000 synagogues in North
America.
Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism is the most liberal expression of Judaism. In America, Reform Judaism
is organized under the Union for Reform Judaism (known as the Union of American
Hebrew Congregations until 2003), whose mission is "to create and sustain vibrant
Jewish congregations wherever Reform Jews live." About 1.5 million Jews in 900
synagogues are members of the Union for Reform Judaism. According to 1990 survey,
42 percent of American Jews regard themselves as Reform.
Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism may be said to be a moderate position between Orthodox and
Reform Judaism. It seeks to conserve the traditional elements of Judaism, while allowing
for modernization to a less radical extent than Reform Judaism. The teachings of
Zacharias Frankel (1801-75) form the foundation of Conservative Judaism.
Hasidic Judaism
Hasidic (or Chasidic) Judaism arose in 12th-century Germany as a mystical movement
emphasizing asceticism and experience born out of love and humility before God. The
austere religious life of these early Hasids ("pious ones") is documented in the Sefer
Hasidim ("Book of the Pious"). The modern Hasidic movement was founded in Poland in
the 18th century by Israel ben Eliezer, more commonly known as the Baal Shem Tov
("Master of the Good Name") or "the Besht" (an acronym for Baal Shem Tov).
Kabbalah
The mystical form of Judaism is Kabbalah. Broadly speaking, Kabbalah refers to Jewish
mysticism dating back to the time of the second Temple. For many years a carefully
guarded oral tradition, it became systematized and dispersed in the Middle Ages. The
kabbalistic viewpoint was expressed most importantly in the Yalkut Re'uveni by Reuben
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Hoeshke in 1660, but also made its way into prayer books, popular customs and ethics.
The focus of the Kabbalah is the simultaneous transcendence and immanence of God,
with the latter described in terms of the sefirot, or attributes of God.
Jewish Rituals and Practices
Jewish rituals and religious observances are grounded in Jewish law (halakhah, lit.
"the path one walks." An elaborate framework of divine mitzvot, or commandments,
combined with rabbinic laws and traditions, this law is central to Judaism.
Halakhah governs not just religious life, but daily life, from how to dress to what to eat to
how to help the poor. Observance of halakhah shows gratitude to God, provides a sense
of Jewish identity and brings the sacred into everyday life.
The Mitzvot
The Hebrew word mitzvot means "commandments" (mitzvah is its singular form).
Although the word is sometimes used more broadly to refer to rabbinic (Talmudic) law or
general good deeds ("It would be a mitzvah to visit your mother"), in its strictest sense it
refers to the divine commandments given by God in the Torah.
The 613 Commandments
The important Jewish philosopher Maimonides made a list of the 613 commandments he
found in the Jewish Bible, and here they are.
Rabbinic Law
In addition to the 613 mitzvot, Jewish law incorporates a large body of rabbinical rules
and laws. These are considered just as binding as the mitzvot, although the punishments
for violating them are less severe. Another difference is that it is possible, though
unlikely, for the rabbinical laws to be changed, but no rabbi can change the Torah
mitzvot. The rabbinical portion of halakhah falls into three groups: a gezeirah, takkanah,
and minhag.
The Synagogue
The Jewish house of worship is a synagogue. The synagogue predates the
destruction of the Second Temple, but it became central to religious life
after the Temple was lost. The synagogue replaces ritual sacrifice with
Torah readings, prayer and teaching.
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Jewish Worship and Prayer
Guide to characteristics of Jewish worship and prayer, the weekday and Sabbath prayer
services and etiquette for visitors.
Keeping Kosher: Jewish Dietary Laws
One of the most well-known Jewish religious practices is that of eating kosher foods. The
laws of kashrut (Jewish dietary laws) may be puzzling or meaningless to the outsider, but
they have held great meaning for the Jewish people throughout their history. Not only are
they an opportunity for obedience to God, they also strongly contribute to Jewish unity
and identity.
The 613 Commandments
What are the 613 Commandments?
The Jewish philosopher Rabbi Maimonides made a list of the 613 commandments he
found in the Jewish Bible, and they have since become a standard list of what God
requires of Jews. The 613 mitzvot are listed below, with their biblical references.
Link: http://www.religionfacts.com/judaism/practices/613.htm
First 35 Commandments
Ex. 20:2
Ex. 20:3
Deut. 6:4
Deut. 6:5
Deut. 10:20
Lev. 22:32
Lev. 22:32
Deut. 12:4
Deut. 18:15
Deut. 6:16
Deut. 28:9
Deut. 10:20
Lev. 19:18
Deut. 10:19
Lev. 19:17
Lev. 19:17
Lev. 19:17
Ex. 21:22
Lev. 19:16
Lev. 19:18
Lev. 19:18
Deut. 6:7
Lev. 19:32
inquire into idolatry Lev. 19:4
Num. 15:39
Ex. 22:27
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Ex. 20:5
Ex. 20:5
Ex. 20:4
Lev. 19:4
Ex. 20:20
Ex. 23:13
Deut. 13:17
Deut. 13:17
Deut. 13:18
Jewish Sacred Texts
The People of the Book
The Jews are known as the "People of the Book," an appropriate title. After the
destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and the subsequent exile, sacrifices became
impossible and Jewish religious life turned to Torah study and prayer in the synagogue.
Study of Torah and other Jewish texts has been central to religious life ever since.
The Torah, the Talmud, and other Jewish writings are precious sources of Jewish history
and divine commandments (the mitzvot), both of which continue to play a dominant part
in Judaism.
To remember the great things God has done for the Jewish people in history, and what he
asks of them in return, selections from the Torah and the Prophets are read in the
synagogue several times a week.
To assist in proper interpretation and application of the mitzvot, a great body of rabbinical
writings has developed and continues to develop to this day.
Study of Torah (prefably in its original language, Hebrew) is an integral part of a Jewish
child's education, and even Jewish mysticism is focused on intensive textual study.
Tanakh
The Jewish sacred text is the Tanakh, whose name is an acronym of Torah, Nebi'im and
Ketuvim (Law, Prophets and Writings). It consists of the same books as the Christian Old
Testament, although in a slightly different order and with other minor differences.
Torah
Although the word "Torah" is sometimes used to refer to the entire Tanakh or even the
whole body of Jewish writings, it technically means the first five books of the Tanakh.
These books are also known as the Five Books of Moses or the Pentateuch.
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Talmud: The Oral Torah
Another important Jewish text is the Talmud, a collection of rabbinical writings that
interpret, explain and apply the Torah scriptures. The Talmud was written between the
second and fifth century CE, but Orthodox Jews believe it was revealed to Moses along
with the Torah and preseved orally until it was written down. The Talmud is thus known
as the "Oral Torah," with the first five books of the Tanakh designated the "Written
Torah."
Midrash
A third group of Jewish literature is the Midrash, which is a large body of rabbinical
material derived primary from sermons (the Hebrew word for "sermon" is d'rash). The
primary collections of Midrash were compiled between the fourth and sixth centuries, but
the midrashic form continues to the present day.
Responsa
A further set of Jewish writings is the responsa, a vast collection (thousands of volumes)
of answers to specific questions on Jewish law. If the Talmud is a law book, the responsa
are case law.
The Septuagint
An ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible dating to before the time of Jesus
Christ, and used extensively by New Testament writers and the early church.
Zohar
The Sefer ha-Zohar (Book of Splendor) is the central text of Kabbalah, the mystical
branch of Judaism.
“Religions and Belief Systems”. Religion Facts. 3February2014< http://www.religionfacts.com/>.
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CHRISTIANITY
Overview of Christian History
Christian history begins with Jesus of Nazareth, a Jew who was born in a small corner
of the Roman Empire. Little is known of his early life, but around the age of 30, Jesus
was baptized by John the Baptist and had a vision in which he received the blessing of
God. After this event, he began a ministry of teaching, healing, and miracle-working. He
spoke of the "kingdom of God," condemned religious hypocrites and interpreted the
Mosaic law in new ways. He spoke before crowds of people, but also chose 12 disciples
whom he taught privately. They eagerly followed him, believing him to be the longawaited Messiah who would usher in the kingdom of God on earth.
After just a few years, however, opposition mounted against Jesus, and he was ultimately
executed by crucifixion by the Romans. Most of Jesus' followers scattered, dismayed at
such an unexpected outcome. But three days later, women who went to anoint his body
reported that the tomb was empty and an angel told them Jesus had risen from the dead.
The disciples were initially skeptical, but later came to believe. They reported that Jesus
appeared to them on several occasions and then ascended into heaven before their eyes.
The remainder of the first century AD saw the number of Jesus' followers, who were
soon called "Christians," grow rapidly. Instrumental in the spread of Christianity was a
man named Paul, a zealous Jew who had persecuted Christians, then converted to the
faith after experiencing a vision of the risen Jesus. Taking advantage of the extensive
system of Roman roads and the time of peace, Paul went on numerous missionary
journeys throughout the Roman Empire. He started churches, then wrote letters back to
them to offer further counsel and encouragement. Many of these letters would become
part of the Christian scriptures, the "New Testament."
In the second and third centuries AD, Christians struggled with persecution from outside
the church and doctrinal debates from within the church. Christian leaders, who are now
called the "church fathers," wrote defenses of the false claims made against Christians
(apologetics) as well as arguments against false teachings spreading within the church
(polemics). Doctrines were explored, developed, and solidified, the canon of the New
Testament was formed, and the notion of "apostolic succession" established a system of
authority to guard against wrong interpretations of Christian teachings.
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A major turning point in Christian history came in the early 4th century AD, when the
Roman emperor Constantine converted to Christianity. The Christian religion became
legal, persecution ceased, and thousands of pagans now found it convenient to convert to
the emperor's faith. Allied with the Roman Empire, Christianity gradually rose in power
and hierarchy until it became the "Christendom" that would encompass the entire western
world in the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
Emperor Constantine hoped Christianity would be the uniting force of his empire, so he
was distressed to hear of a dispute over Arianism, which held that Christ was more than a
man but less than God himself. In 325 AD, Constantine called the Council of Nicea so
that the bishops could work out their differences. They condemned Arius and Arianism
and declared the Son (Christ) to be of "one substance" with the Father. After the council,
St. Athanasius of Alexandria continued to battle the Arians, but the orthodox view
eventually won out for good. The church then turned to issues about Christ's divine and
human natures, which were essentially resolved at the Council of Chalcedon (451 AD).
In the meantime, the considerable religious, cultural, and political differences between
the Eastern and Western churches were becoming increasingly apparent. Religiously, the
two parts of Christendom had different views on topics such as the use of icons, the
nature of the Holy Spirit, and the date on which Easter should be celebrated. Culturally,
the Greek East has always tended to be more philosophical and abstract in its thinking,
while the Latin West tended toward a more pragmatic and legal-minded approach.
As the old saying goes: "the Greeks built metaphysical systems; the Romans built roads."
The political aspects of the split began with the Emperor Constantine, who moved the
capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople (in modern Turkey). Upon his
death, the empire was divided between his two sons, one of whom ruled the western half
of the empire from Rome while the other ruled the eastern region from Constantinople.
These various factors finally came to a head in 1054 AD, when Pope Leo IX
excommunicated the patriarch of Constantinople, the leader of the Eastern church. The
Patriarch condemned the Pope in return, and the Christian church has been officially
divided into West ("Roman Catholic") and East ("Greek Orthodox") ever since.
In the 1400s, some western Christians began to publicly challenge aspects of the church.
They spoke against the abuse of authority and corruption in Christian leadership. They
called for a return to the gospel and a stripping off of traditions and customs like
purgatory, the cult of the saints and relics, and the withholding of the communion wine
from non-clergy. They began to translate the Bible - then available only in Latin - into the
common languages of the people.
However, these early reformers did not have widespread success, and most were executed
for their teachings. Legend has it that when Jan Hus, a Czech reformer whose surname
means "goose," was burned at the stake in 1415, he called out: "Today you roast a goose,
but in 100 years, a swan will sing!"
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In 1517, a German monk named Martin Luther (who bore little resemblence to a swan)
posted 97 complaints against the practice of selling indulgences on a church door. He had
experienced a personal conversion to the doctrine of justification by faith alone, and also
shared many of the ideas of those early reformers. Growing German nationalism and the
invention of the printing press ensured that Luther would have greater protection than his
predecessors and his teachings would be spread quickly.
He was excommunicated and barely escaped with his life on more than one occasion, but
Luther lived out his life spreading the Reformation, and died a natural death. His ideas
had already spread throughout Germany, and similar reforming movements sprung up in
England and Switzerland. Soon much of Europe was embroiled in a civil war, with
Protestant nationalists fighting Catholic imperialists for religious and political freedom.
In the 17th century, Christians of many ideologies embarked on the hazardous journey
across the Atlantic, to the promise of religious freedom and economic prosperity in the
New World. Quakers came to Pennsylvania, Catholics to Maryland, and Dutch Reformed
to New York. Later came Swedish Lutherans and French Huguenots, English Baptists
and Scottish Presbyterians. With the exception of some Puritan communities, there was
no attempt to impose religious uniformity in America.
The period from about 1648 to 1800 was an age in which reason (as opposed to
revelation and dogma) became increasingly important, but so did religious revival.
Benjamin Franklin exemplified his time's general attitude towards religious matters when
he remarked, a few weeks before his death:
As to Jesus of Nazareth...I have...some doubts as to his Divinity, tho' it is a question I do not dogmatize
upon, having never studied it.... I see no harm, however, it its being believed, if that belief has the good
consequence...of making his doctrines more respected and better observed.
At the same time that religious skepticism and toleration were growing in the west, so too
were revival movements that sought to return to masses to genuine faith in Christ and the
gospel of salvation. George Whitefield arrived in the colonies from England in 1739, and
experienced wide success with his revival sermons. Jonathan Edwards was famous for his
fiery sermons in which he described in detail the torments of those who do not have
personal faith in Jesus Christ. John Wesley was revivalist preacher and a personal friend
of Whitefield, but he differed strongly from his Presbyterian friend on the doctrine of
predestination. Wesley founded a small group of preachers and bible students, who
focused on holy living and came to be called the "Methodists."
Today, Christianity is the largest world religion, with about 2 billion adherents. It is the
majority religion of Europe and the Americas, and there are churches in almost every
nation in the world. There are perhaps thousands of Christian denominations, all of whom
believe in the basic doctrines established at the Council of Nicea but differ in other
matters of doctrine and practice. In recent years, there has been a growing movement
among these denominations to work together in unity for the good of the world. In 1948,
the World Council of Churches was founded to that end.
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Overview of Christianity
What is Christianity?
With nearly two billion professed adherents worldwide, Christianity is currently the
largest religion in the world. It has dominated western culture for centuries and remains
the majority religion of Europe and the Americas. Christian belief centers on the life of
Jesus of Nazareth, a teacher and healer of first-century Palestine.
The primary source of information about the life of Jesus are the Gospels, four books
written by different authors 30-100 years after Jesus' death. The Gospels eventually
became the first four books of the New Testament.
Jesus Christ
The Gospels describe a three-year teaching and healing ministry during which Jesus
attracted 12 close disciples and other followers who believed him to be the Messiah. This
is the basis of Jesus' title "Christ," which comes from the Greek word for "Messiah."
Jesus' teachings focused on the themes of the kingdom of God, love of God and love of
neighbor. Along with some of his teachings, his growing popularity with the masses was
seen as dangerous by Jewish religious leaders and the Roman government, leading to his
execution by crucifixion.
Christians believe Jesus rose from the dead three days after his burial, and in so doing
made it possible for those who believe to be forgiven of sin and attain eternal life. Much
of Christian belief and practice centers on the resurrection of Christ. The most
distinctive belief of mainstream Christianity is the doctrine of the Trinity, which views
the one God as consisting of three Persons: the Father, the Son (Christ) and the Holy
Spirit.
The Bible
The sacred text of Christianity is the Bible, which consists of the Old Testament
(roughly equivalent to the Jewish Bible) and the New Testament. The New Testament
contains 27 books: four gospels (narratives of Jesus' life), one account of the apostles'
ministry after Jesus' death, letters from church leaders (the earliest of which predate the
Gospels), and an apocalyptic work.
Nearly all Christians regard the Bible as divinely inspired and authoritative, but views
differ as to the nature and extent of its authority. Some hold it to be completely without
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error in all matters it addresses, while others stress its accuracy only in religious matters
and allow for errors or limitations in other areas due to its human authorship.
Branches of Christianity
Christianity has divided into three major branches over the centuries. Roman
Catholicism represents the continuation of the historical organized church as it
developed in Western Europe, and is headed by the Pope. Distinctive beliefs of Catholics
include the doctrines of Transubstantiation and Purgatory, and distinctive practices
include devotion to the saints and Mary and use of the rosary.
Eastern Orthodoxy (which includes the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches and
several others) is the continuation of the historical organized church as it developed in
Eastern Europe. It differs from Catholicism in its refusal of allegiance to the Pope, its
emphasis on the use of icons in worship, and the date it celebrates Easter. Other cultural,
political, and religious differences exist as well. Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman
Catholicism separated in 1054 AD, when the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Pope
excommunicated each other.
Protestantism arose in the 16th century during the Reformation, which took place
mainly in Germany, Switzerland, and Britain. Protestants do not acknowledge the
authority of the Pope, reject many traditions and beliefs of the Catholic Church,
emphasize the importance of reading the Bible and hold to the doctrine of salvation by
faith alone. Protestantism encompasses numerous denominational groups, including
Lutherans, Baptists, Methodists, Episcopalians (or Anglicanism), Presbyterians,
Pentecostals and Evangelicals.
Practices of Christianity
Christian practices vary by denomination, but common elements include a Sunday
worship service, private and corporate prayer, study and reading of the Scriptures, and
participation in rites such as baptism and communion. Distinctive Catholic practices
include recognition of seven total sacraments, Sunday mass, devotion to the Virgin Mary
and the saints, and veneration of relics and places associated with holy figures. Eastern
Orthodoxy holds many practices in common with Catholicism, but is especially
distinguished by the central role of icons: ornate images of Christ and the saints believed
to provide a connection to the spiritual world.
Sacred Days of Christianity
The most important Christian holiday is Easter, a spring festival that celebrates Christ's
resurrection from the dead. Easter is immediately preceded by Holy Week, which
includes Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday, and Good Friday. The 40 days prior to Easter
form the Lenten season, a time of fasting and repentance. Another holiday that came to
be culturally important is Christmas, which commemorates the birth of Jesus on
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December 25. Saints' days are also important. Some of these, such as St. Patrick's Day
and Valentine's Day, have come to play a prominent role in popular western culture.
Christian Beliefs
Christianity tends to take beliefs quite seriously. The early fathers and councils carefully
distinguished between "orthodoxy" from "heresy" in an effort to preserve what they saw
as the true Christian message. In the Middle Ages, established doctrine was carefully
safeguarded, and in the 16th century, reformers called for the stripping away of
superfluous doctrines and emphasized true faith as the only requirement for salvation.
And Christian beliefs remain important today: the many denominations within
Christianity center primarily around matters of doctrine rather than practice.
Given the great historical attention that has been devoted to it, the 2,000 years' worth of
available writing on its many subjects, and its sometimes complex philosophical
arguments, Christian doctrine can be an intimidating subject to tackle, especially for the
beginner. The following articles therefore attempt to summarize the general consensus of
Christian beliefs on everything from God to the afterlife, with historical development and
denominational differences taken into account as much as possible.
The Christian God
Who is God?
Christianity is one of the three major monotheistic world religions. Like Jews and
Muslims, Christians believe one God who created the world and takes an interest in the
humans who inhabit it. This article explores what Christians believe about the
characteristics and nature of God. The major theological belief that Jews and Muslims do
not share - the doctrine of the Trinity - will be explored separately. (See article on the
Trinity)
God in the New Testament
The authors of the New Testament took for granted the existence of the God of the Old
Testament. They believed in Yahweh, "the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob," whom the
Jews worshipped as the one true God (Ac 13:32; Ro 3:29, 4:3).
Like the Old Testament, the New Testament teaches that there is only one God (Mk
12:29; Eph 4:6; Jas 2:19), who is pure spirit (Jn 4:24; 1 Jn 4:12), the creator of the world
(1 Ti 4:4; Heb 3:4), holy and good (Ro 3:4; Eph 4:24; Rev 4:8), all-powerful (Mt 19:26;
Mk 2:7, 10:18) and worthy of mankind's worship and love (Mt 6:24; Mk 11:22; Lk 2:14).
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God expects ethical behavior (Jn 6:29; Ac 8:21, 24:16; 2 Co 9:7; 1 Th 4:9; Jas 1:27; 1 Jn
3:9) and will judge wrongdoers (Ro 2:16, 3:19).
The New Testament especially emphasizes God's love for the world and his desire to
save all people (Jn 3:16; Ro 5:5,5:8; Php 4:191 Jn 4:7-9).
Where the New Testament differs from the Old Testament in its teachings about God is
in its proclamation that God has chosen to reveal himself to mankind through Christ, the
Incarnation of God. Especially in the Gospel of John, it is emphasized that Jesus alone
knows the Father completely and he came to help humans know God ("the Father")
better:
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John 3:35 - "The Father loves the Son and has placed everything in his hands." (John the Baptist)
John 7:16: "My teaching is not my own. It comes from him who sent me."
John 14:9-10: "Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father. How can you say, 'Show us the
Father?' Don't you believe that I am in the Father, and that the Father is in me?"
Romans 1:17: "For in the gospel a righteousness from God is revealed."
God in Early Christian Theology
The early Greek fathers made extensive use of reason and philosophy in their attempt to
defend Christianity in the cultured world around them. Justin Martyr, influenced by
Platonism, emphasized the ineffability, omnipotence and impassibility of God, while
Athenagoras and Theophilus focused on God's simplicity, indivisibility and universal
providence.
Irenaeus developed his doctrine of God in reaction against the Gnostics, and thus
emphasized the self-sufficiency and perfection of the one God. By the time of the
Council of Nicea, the chief divine attributes of eternity, immutability, omniscience and
omnipotence were undisputed by all Christians.
A Personal God
The Christian God is a personal God. This does not mean that God is a human being, but
that God has "personality" and the capability of both relationships with other personal
beings. This is seen clearly in both the Old and New Testaments, in which God is
described in strongly personal terms (father, shepherd, etc.) and establishes relationships
with human beings.
In this belief, Christianity is like Judaism and Islam but very different from deism or the
theism of Greek philosophy. In the latter systems, God is an impersonal force that causes
the world to exist but does not interact with it.
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Is God Masculine?
Throughout the Christian Bible, masculine language is used to refer to God. The Greek
word for God (theos), the pronouns used to refer to God, and most of the analogies used
to describe God are masculine. But it has never been a part of Christian doctrine that God
is male, or that God has gender at all.
In Christian thought, a distinction between male and female exists in the created order,
but not in God. In Genesis 1:27, God creates both male and female in his image. God thus
incorporates the fullness of both masculinity and femininity within himself. In fact, the
notion of God having gender is a pagan one, associated especially with the fertility cults
that were explicitly rejected by the authors of the Old Testament.
So why is masculine imagery used for God? Christians explain that traditionally
masculine human roles seemed to the biblical writers to provide the best analogies for
God. They used masculine language because they wished to emphasize that God is a
leader, a provider, and a strict disciplinarian, all of which were roles associated with men.
But as Oxford professor Alister McGrath points out:
The statement that "a father in ancient Israelite society is a suitable model for God" is not equivalent to
saying that "God is male" or that "God is confined to the cultural parameters of ancient Israel."
Christians throughout the centuries have recognized this. One notable example is the
medieval mystic Julian of Norwich, who wrote of one of her visions:
I saw that God rejoices to be our Father, and also that he rejoices to be our Mother... He is the true Father
and Mother of what things are by nature.
In light of increasing concerns about language and gender, some Christian denominations
have made official statements rejecting the notion that God is male (or female). One
notable example is the 1994 Catechism of the Catholic Church, which explains:
By calling God "Father," the language of faith indicates two main things: that God is the first origin of
everything and transcendent authority; and that he is at the same time goodness and loving care for all his
children. God's parental tenderness can also be expressed by the image of motherhood, which emphasizes
God's immanence, the intimacy between Creator and creature. ... We ought therefore to recall that God
transcends the human distinction between the sexes. He is neither man nor woman; he is God. He also
transcends human fatherhood and motherhood, although he is their origin and standard.
Many individual Christians have also begun to emphasize the importance of genderinclusive language when talking about God. This usually involves replacement of
masculine terms such as "Father" and "Son" with neutral terms such as "Parent" and
"Child," and avoidance of pronouns for God altogether, both of which can present a
linguistic challenge. It is also controversial - critics argue that these changes can result in
loss of meaning and do not give enough weight to God's self-revelation.
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Denominational Statements about God
Although the theological beliefs described later in this article are broad enough to apply
to all mainline Christian denominations, it may be of interest to the reader to explore the
manner in which various confessional agencies have chosen to officially express these
beliefs. Following, therefore, are excerpts from official doctrinal statements about God
made by several Christian traditions.
United Methodist Church:
With Christians of other communions we confess belief in the triune God - Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
This confession embraces the biblical witness to God's activity in creation, encompasses God's gracious
self-involvement in the dramas of history, and anticipates the consummation of God's reign.
Assemblies of God:
The one true God has revealed Himself as the eternally self-existent "I AM," the Creator of heaven and
earth and the Redeemer of mankind. He has further revealed Himself as embodying the principles of
relationship and association as Father, Son and Holy Ghost.
Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod:
On the basis of the Holy Scriptures we teach the sublime article of the Holy Trinity; that is, we teach that
the one true God, Deut. 6:4; 1 Cor. 8:4, is the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost, three distinct persons,
but of one and the same divine essence, equal in power, equal in eternity, equal in majesty, because each
person possesses the one divine essence entire, Col. 2:9, Matt. 28:19.
Catechism of the Catholic Church:
The Church never ceases to proclaim her faith in one only God: Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
Southern Baptist Convention:
There is one and only one living and true God. He is an intelligent, spiritual, and personal Being, the
Creator, Redeemer, Preserver, and Ruler of the universe. God is infinite in holiness and all other
perfections. God is all powerful and all knowing; and His perfect knowledge extends to all things, past,
present, and future, including the future decisions of His free creatures. ... The eternal triune God reveals
Himself to us as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, with distinct personal attributes, but without division of
nature, essence, or being.
Presbyterian Church (USA):
Through the grace of our Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God, and the communion of the Holy Spirit, we
trust in the one triune God, the Holy One of Israel, whom alone we worship and serve.
Greek Orthodox Archidiocese of America:
While the inner Being of God always remains unknown and unapproachable, God has manifested Himself
to us; and the Church has experienced Him as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The Doctrine of the Holy
Trinity, which is central to the Orthodox Faith, is not a result of pious speculation, but the over whelming
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experience of God. The doctrine affirms that there is only One God in whom there are three distinct
Persons. In other words, when we encounter either the Father, the Son, or the Holy Spirit, we are truly
experiencing contact with God.
The Doctrine of the Trinity
What is the Trinity?
Christians regards their religion as monotheistic, since Christianity teaches the existence
of one God - Yahweh, the God of the Jews. It shares this belief with two other major
world religions, Judaism and Islam.
However, Christian monotheism is a unique kind of monotheism. It holds that God is
One, but that three distinct "persons" constitute the one God: the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Spirit. This unique threefold God of Christian belief is referred to as the Trinity
(from Latin trinitas, "three").
Fast Facts on the Trinity
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The word "Trinity" does not appear in the Bible
The word "Trinity" was first used by Tertullian (c.155-230)
The doctrine of the Trinity is commonly expressed as: "One God, three Persons"
The doctrine is formally defined in the Nicene Creed, which declares Jesus to be: "God of God,
Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the
Father."
Past and present Christian faiths who do not believe in the Trinity include:
o Arianism (4th century)
o Some Radical Reformers (16th century), such as Michael Servetus
o Jehovah's Witnesses
o Mormonism
o Unitarianism
Reasons given for rejecting the doctrine of the Trinity include:
o It is not mentioned in the Bible
o It does not make philosophical sense
o It is not compatible with monotheism
o It is not necessary in order to explain the "specialness" of Jesus
Reasons given for believing in the Trinity include:
o It is taught indirectly in various statements in the Bible
o It explains the divinity of Jesus and the Holy Spirit while affirming monotheism
o It would not be expected that the nature of God would make sense to human minds
o The early ecumenical councils (primarily Nicea) are authoritative
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History of the Doctrine of the Trinity
The doctrine of the Trinity took centuries to develop, but the roots of the doctrine can be
seen from the first century.
The word "Trinity" is not found in the New Testament, nor is the doctrine explicitly
taught there. However, foundations of the concept of the Trinity can be seen in the New
Testament, especially in the Gospel of John, one of the latest and most theologically
developed of the New Testament books.
Hints of Trinitarian beliefs can also be seen in the teachings of extra-biblical writers as
early as the end of the first century. However, the clearest early expression of the concept
came with Tertullian, a Latin theologian who wrote in the early third century. Tertullian
coined the words "Trinity" and "person" and explained that the Father, Son and Holy
Spirit were "one in essence - not one in Person."
About a century later, in 325, the Council of Nicea set out to officially define the
relationship of the Son to the Father, in response to the controversial teachings of Arius.
Led by bishop Athanasius, the council established the doctrine of the Trinity as
orthodoxy and condemned Arius' teaching that Christ was the first creation of God. The
creed adopted by the council described Christ as "God of God, Light of Light, very God
of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance (homoousios) with the Father."
Nicea did not end the controversy, however. Debate over how the creed (especially the
phrase "one substance") ought to be interpreted continued to rage for decades. One group
advocated the doctrine that Christ was a "similar substance" (homoiousios) as the Father.
But for the most part, the issue of the Trinity was settled at Nicea and, by the fifth
century, never again became a focus of serious controversy.
Most post-Nicene theological discussion of the Trinity consisted of attempts to
understand and explain such a unique concept. Gregory of Nyssa, in his treatise, That
There are Not Three Gods, compared the divinity shared by the three persons of the
Trinity to the common "humanness," or human nature, that is shared by individual human
beings. (Ironically, this initially promising explanation has been seen by some to yield a
conclusion quite opposite than the title of his work.)
Saint Augustine, one of the greatest thinkers of the early church, described the Trinity as
comparable to the three parts of an individual human being: mind, spirit, and will. They
are three distinct aspects, yet they are inseparable and together constitute one unified
human being.
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Modern Denominational Statements on the Trinity
There are many differences in doctrine between various mainstream Christian
denominations, but the doctrine of the Trinity is not one of them.
The mystery of the Most Holy Trinity is the central mystery of the Christian faith and of
Christian life. -- Roman Catholicism
The fundamental truth of the Orthodox Church is the faith revealed in the True God: the
Holy Trinity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. -- Greek Orthodox
Archdiocese of America
We teach that the one true God. is the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost, three
distinct persons, but of one and the same divine essence, equal in power, equal in
eternity, equal in majesty, because each person possesses the one divine essence .-Lutheran Church (Missouri Synod)
We trust in the one triune God. -- Presbyterian Church (USA)
The eternal triune God reveals Himself to us as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, with distinct
personal attributes, but without division of nature, essence, or being. -- Southern Baptist
Convention
There is but one living and true God, everlasting, without body or parts, of infinite power,
wisdom, and goodness; the maker and preserver of all things, both visible and invisible.
And in unity of this Godhead there are three persons, of one substance, power, and
eternity-the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. -- United Methodist Church
Critics of the Trinitarian Doctrine, Past and Present
Despite its widespread acceptance among Christians, the doctrine of the Trinity has been
a stumbling block to many non-Christians throughout its history. The fiercely
monotheistic Jews rejected the idea of the Trinity since it first arose, it has been similarly
rejected by Islam since that religion was founded, and many other men and women of all
backgrounds have found the concept difficult to understand or accept.
This section provides a brief summary of groups and individuals who have rejected the
Trinity, presented in roughly chronological order.
Judaism
In the New Testament, Jews are described as rejecting Jesus' claims apparent claims to
divinity, accusing him of blasphemy. In the Gospel of Mark, for instance, Jesus forgives a
man's sins and some Jewish teachers thought to themselves: "Why does this fellow talk
like that? He's blaspheming! Who can forgive sins but God alone?" 5 In the Gospel of
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John, some Jews began to stone Jesus, explaining that they did so "for blasphemy,
because you, a mere man, claim to be God."
The great Jewish philosopher Maimonides also rejected the Trinitarian beliefs of
Christians.
In his aversion to what he considered to be Christian dilutions of pure monotheism, especially in its
doctrine of the Trinity, much of Maimonides' philosophical critique of Christian theology is similar to
Islamic arguments against it. In his earlier work, Maimonides translated his theoretical disdain of
Christianity into practice. He deemed Christians to be idolators and bemoaned the fact that political
necessity forced many European Jews to live in Christian societies.
Today, Jewish counter-missionary movements like "Jews for Judaism" seek to educate
Jews about why belief in the Trinity is incompatible with Judaism.
Arianism
Arianism is the name given to an anti-Trinitarian belief system taught by Arius, an elder
in the Alexandrian church, in the early fourth century AD. Arius affirmed the uniqueness
of God and denied the complete divinity of the Son (Christ). He taught instead that Christ
was a created and changeable being, who, while superior to humans, is not of the same
order as the one God.
Arius and Arianism were condemned at the famous Council of Nicea in 325 AD, which
proclaimed that the Son was of "the same substance" as the Father. After Constantine's
death, however, Arianism flourished again for some decades and almost overcame the
Nicene party. Arianism was finally condemned at the Council of Constantinople in 381
AD.
Islam
The sacred text of Islam, the Qur'an (or Koran), explicitly denies the doctrine of the
Trinity. It appears to understand the Christian Trinity as being the Father, Son and Mary:
And (remember) when Allah will say (on the Day of Resurrection): 'O 'Iesa (Jesus), son of Maryam (Mary)
! Did you say unto men: Worship me and my mother as two gods besides Allah?' He will say: 'Glory be to
you! It was not for me to say that which I had no right (to say). 8
Jehovah's Witnesses
The Jehovah's Witnesses, a Christian group founded in the United States, rejects the
doctrine of the Trinity. Instead, it teaches a doctrine similar to that of Arius in the fourth
century - Christ is the Son of God, a special being, created by God before the beginning
of time, but not equal with God. Witnesses regard Arius as a forerunner of Charles Taze
Russell, their movement's founder. 9
A Jehovah's Witness brochure entitled "Beliefs and Customs that God Hates" includes the
Trinity, saying:
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Is Jehovah a Trinity-three persons in one God? No! Jehovah, the Father, is "the only true God." (John 17:3;
Mark 12:29) Jesus is His firstborn Son, and he is subject to God. (1 Corinthians 11:3) The Father is greater
than the Son. (John 14:28) The holy spirit is not a person; it is God's active force.-Genesis 1:2; Acts 2:18.
In addition to the Bible verses cited above, Witnesses point out that it was the secular
Emperor who proposed the doctrine of Christ as "same substance" with God, not the
bishops present, and that the doctrine of the Trinity (i.e., including the divinity of the
Holy Spirit) was not actually brought forth at Nicea at all. Jehovah's Witnesses also argue
that the Athanasian Creed, which sets forth the doctrine more clearly, was not only
probably not written by Athanasius himself, but may not have been composed until the
fifth century. Finally, they note the presence of Trinitarian-type beliefs in pagan religion,
and argue that paganism is the source of the Christian doctrine of the Trinity as well.
Mormonism (LDS)
Mormons believe that the Godhead is made up of three distinct beings who are "one in
purpose" but not in being. Jesus is affirmed as Son of God, but not God himself. He is a
created spirit.
Unitarianism
"Unitarianism" is the doctrine of the oneness of God, with the resultant denial of the
Trinity. Today, the doctrine of unitarianism is expressed by the Unitarian Universalist
Association and similar groups, which have their historical roots in sixteenth-century
eastern Europe. Historically, Unitarian Universalists are defined by their rejection of the
Trinity and their belief in the ultimate salvation of all humanity.
Today, however, Unitarians draw from a variety of religious traditions and do not focus
on doctrine and creeds as much as love and justice between human beings. Because of
this de-emphasis on doctrine, modern Unitarian Universalist arguments against the
Trinity are scarce. However, the official Web site of the Unitarian Univeralist
Association describes the early history of their beliefs this way:
During the first three centuries of the Christian church, believers could choose from a variety of tenets
about Jesus. Among these was a belief that Jesus was an entity sent by God on a divine mission. Thus the
word "Unitarian" developed, meaning the oneness of God. Another religious choice in the first three
centuries of the Common Era (CE) was universal salvation. This was the belief that no person would be
condemned by God to eternal damnation in a fiery pit. Thus a Universalist believed that all people will be
saved. Christianity lost its element of choice in 325 CE when the Nicene Creed established the Trinity as
dogma. For centuries thereafter, people who professed Unitarian or Universalist beliefs were persecuted. 11
The Da Vinci Code
Although neither a scholarly nor a religious source, Dan Brown's novel The Da Vinci
Code is mentioned here because it has been widely read and it claims to present
numerous "historical facts" about the development of the Trinity and other aspects of
early Christianity. At one point in the novel, a learned character explains that the Trinity
was unheard of until the Emperor Constantine enforced the foreign idea of Christ's
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divinity on Christendom. Brown writes, "until that moment in history, Jesus was viewed
by His followers as a mortal prophet … a great and powerful man, but a man
nonetheless." This is not historically accurate.
Who Was Jesus? Beliefs about Christ
Who was Jesus?
"Who was Jesus?" is a question asked in many cultures, and by many
people, no matter their religion or worldview. Some say Jesus is Lord.
Others say Jesus was only a man. No matter how a person answers the
question, "Who was Jesus?" people everywhere are fascinated by his life.
Jesus Christ is undoubtedly one the most fascinating and enigmatic
figures in history. Despite his humble origins as the son of a carpenter from the Judean
countryside, his short life of about 33 years, and his short public career, which was
between one and three years, Jesus is the central focus of the world's largest religion and
he has meant many things to many people since his death almost 2,000 years ago.
Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions calls Jesus "arguably the most
important figure in the history of western civilization."
This article is intended to begin to answer the question, "Who was Jesus?" This topic is
known to Christian theologians as "Christology," a field that seeks to answer the
question. The article that follows will focus on five major answers that Christians have
traditionally given to this question: he was a real human being, the Messiah, the Son of
Man, the Son of God, and God.
Who was Jesus? A Historical Human Being
Few today question that at least part of the answer to "Who was Jesus?" is he was a real,
historical person, who was born in Bethlehem between 7 and 4 BC. The humanity of
Jesus is now one of the least controversial areas of Christology, but this was not always
so. In the early years after Christ, some taught that Jesus' body, Jesus' suffering, and
Jesus' death were merely appearances. Scholars call this view "docetism," from the Greek
word meaning "to seem." Docetism arose from the Gnostic view that all matter is evil,
and concluded that God could not have been actually associated with it.
Most atheists and all Christians believe that Jesus was a real person who lived in space
and time 2,000 years ago. However, not everyone says that Jesus is Lord.
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Who was Jesus? The Messiah
Christians answer the question, "Who was Jesus?" saying that Jesus is the Messiah, the
"anointed one" predicted in the Jewish Scriptures. The word "Christ" comes from the
Greek for "Messiah," (it is actually a title, not a surname). According to the Hebrew
prophets, the Messiah is a king-like figure from the line of David who would, among
other things, rescue Israel from her oppressors, return Jerusalem to the Jewish people, and
usher in an age of peace. There is evidence that Jewish messianic expectation was high at
the time of Jesus, associated with hope of liberation from Roman occupation.
Jews and Christians disagree, of course, as to whether Jesus was the Messiah. The
arguments given for both sides and the history of this disagreement is worthy of fuller
treatment, and will be the subject of a future feature article. In the meantime, an overview
of Jewish beliefs about the Messiah can be found in the article on Jewish Beliefs.
In the New Testament, affirmations of Jesus as the Messiah are found in abundance in the
four Gospel narratives and the Acts of the Apostles. The Pauline and other epistles, many
of which predate the Gospels, also attempt to show that Jesus is Messiah, yet they refer to
him almost exclusively as "Christ." In the Gospels, various people identify Jesus as the
Messiah, and Jesus himself reinforces this perception:





After meeting Jesus, Andrew runs to tell Peter that he has found the Messiah (Jn 1:41)
In a conversation with Jesus, a Samaritan woman says she knows the Messiah is coming. Jesus
replies, "I who speak to you am he." (Jn 4:25-26)
When Jesus asks his disciples who they think he is, Peter answers, "You are the Christ." (Mt
16:16; Mk 8:29; Lk 9:20)
During the Triumphal Entry, the crowds shout, "Hosanna to the Son of David!" and the Gospel
author explains that this fulfilled the prophecy of Zechariah 9:9. (Mt 21:4-9)
When Jesus stands trial before the Sanhedrin (the Jewish high court), the high priest asks him if he
is " the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?" and Jesus replies, "I am." (Mk 14:61-62)
In Acts, one of the primary messages of the apostles is that Jesus is the Messiah:



"Day after day, in the temple courts and from house to house, they [the apostles] never stopped
teaching and proclaiming the good news that Jesus is the Christ." (Ac 5:52)
"As his custom was, Paul went into the synagogue, and one three Sabbath days he reasoned with
them from the Scriptures, explaining and proving that the Christ had to suffer and rise from the
dead. 'This Jesus I am proclaiming to you is the Christ,' he said." (Ac 17:2-3)
Before King Herod Agrippa II, Paul insists, "I am saying nothing beyond what the prophets and
Moses said would happen - that the Christ would suffer and, as the first to rise from the dead,
would proclaim light to his own people and to the Gentiles." (Ac 26:22-23)
It is interesting to note that although Jesus appears to see himself as the Messiah in the
Gospels, he does not go out of his way to identify himself as such, and those who do are
commanded not to tell anyone about it. This is known as the "messianic secret," and its
significance relates to the timing of revealing his identity to the public.
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Who was Jesus? The Son of Man
Many people answer the question, "Who was Jesus?" by saying that he
was the Son of Man. The "Son of Man" is used 81 times in the Gospels,
and always by Jesus himself. No other person in the Gospel narratives nor
any other New Testament writer uses the term. Various explanations have
been offered as to why Jesus employed the term and others did not. It may
have been a term Jesus could use early in his ministry without inciting
much hostility, because of its various meanings, but that would later encompass his
messianic claims. The early Christian writers may have been reluctant to use it because
the Greek phrase is somewhat ambiguous (Jesus would have used the simpler Aramaic
term).
To determine what Jesus meant by the phrase, biblical scholars turn to its use in the Old
Testament. There the term "Son of Man" is used in three main contexts:



an address to the prophet Ezekiel (e.g. Ezekiel 2:1);
to refer to humanity in general, especially its lowliness when compared to God and the angels
(Numbers 23:19; Psalm 8:14); and
to refer to an eschatological figure whose coming signals the end of history (Daniel 7:13-14).
Jesus appears to use the phrase especially in the third sense. He uses the phrase "Son of
Man" when speaking of his roles of saving and judging (e.g. Mk 10:45; Mt 25:31) and of
the future coming of an exalted, heavenly figure (e.g. Mt 13:41, 24:30; Mk 14:62; Lk
18:8).
Who was Jesus? The Son of God
Christians answer the question, "Who was Jesus?" by saying he is the Son of God.
Another title used to refer to Jesus in the New Testament is "Son of God." In the Old
Testament, this phrase had a general meaning of "belonging to God." It was applied to
the people of Israel in general and especially its rulers (see e.g. Ex 4:22; 2 Sa 7:14).
[{Jesus does refer to himself as the Christ, Son of the Living God in the Gospels (Mt
16:16-17, 22:41-45, 26:63-63)] and the term is used in the writings of Paul (e.g. Ro 1:4,
8:31) and in the epistle to the Hebrews (4:14). The Gospel of John refers to Jesus simply
as "the Son," which may have a similar meaning. Paul uses the term for both Christ and
Christians, but distinguishes between the two. Christians become sons of God by
adoption, but Jesus is the rightful Son of God by nature.
Who was Jesus? God
Christians answer the question, "Who was Jesus?" by saying Jesus is God. Christians
often build the case for their answer on New Testament verses, such as the following:
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


In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.... The Word
became flesh and made his dwelling among us. (John 1:1,14)
Thomas said to him [the resurrected Jesus], "My Lord and my God!" (John 20:28)
But about the Son he [God] says, "Your throne, O God, will last forever and ever." (Hebrews 1:8)
In addition, some important titles and functions applied to Christ in the New Testament
indicate early belief in his divinity. The statement "Jesus Christ is Lord (Greek kyrios,
Hebrew adonai)" is found throughout the New Testament and was one of the earliest
Christian confessions of faith. Due to the substitution of the word "Lord" in place of
YHWH (the holy name of God that may not be pronounced) in Torah readings, "Lord"
had come to be almost synonymous with God in Jewish thinking by the time of Jesus.
This associated can be seen in the Jews' refusal to address the Roman emperor as "lord,"
even under penalty of death.
Finally, as noted by Alister McGrath, the New Testament writers apply the following
functions to Jesus that are associated only with God:



Jesus is the savior of humanity (Mt 1:21, Ac 4:12, Lk 2:11)
It is appropriate to call on the name of Jesus in prayer (1 Co 1:2) and to worship him (Mt 28:9)
Jesus reveals God directly: "Anyone who has seen me has seen the Father." (Jn 14:9)
Christian Beliefs about Human Nature
The Image of God
Fundamental to the Christian understanding of human nature is the belief that the first
humans were created in the image of God (imago Dei). This derives from Genesis 1:2627, which declares:
Then God said, "Let us make man in our image, in our likeness, and let them rule over the fish of the sea
and the birds of the air, over the livestock, over all the earth, and over all the creatures that move along the
ground. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he
created them.
What does it mean to be created in the image of God? Certainly it does not mean that
humans look like God, for all monotheistic religions believe God to be incorporeal
(nonphysical). But theologians have found in this doctrine a rich variety of other
meanings, all of which give great dignity and honor to the human race.
Closely related to the imago Dei is the belief that humans were created perfectly good, on
which Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are agreed.
The concept of original goodness is based in part on humanity's creation in the image of
God, as well as the observation that God looked upon his creation of human beings with
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satisfaction and pronounced them "very good." There is a philosophical basis as well: it is
reasoned that since God is absolutely good, he cannot be the origin of anything evil.
A Fallen Nature
All monotheistic faiths also agree, however, that humankind has fallen
from this original state of innocence. The disobedience of Adam and Eve
brought negative results that endure to this day.
The most widely agreed upon result is the entrance of physical death into
the world. Beyond that, Christians views differ as to the effect Adam's
sin had on the rest of humanity. Most have taught that when Adam fell and was cast from
the Garden of Eden, permanent damage was done to the human soul such that every
human being since Adam is born with a tendency towards sin.
In addition, sin is universal: every human being has fulfilled the inborn tendency and
actually committed sins. This concept begins in the New Testament with the Apostle
Paul, who declared that "all have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God. there is no
one who is righteous, not even one."
Original Sin
Some Christians have also taught the doctrine of "original sin," in which all humans are
born not only with a predisposition to sinful behavior, but with an inherently sinful
nature. The result is that every person is born deserving eternal damnation, whether or not
they have actually committed a sin yet.
The doctrine of original sin has been especially emphasized by St. Augustine and most of
the Protestant Reformers; it is rejected by Jews, Muslims, and some Christian
denominations.
Christian Beliefs about the Afterlife
Christian beliefs about the afterlife vary between denominations and individual
Christians, but the vast majority of Christians believe in some kind of heaven, in which
believers enjoy the presence of God and other believers and freedom from suffering and
sin.
Views differ as to whether those of other faiths or none at all will be in heaven, and
conceptions of what heaven will be like differ as well.
A slightly lesser majority of Christians believe in the existence of hell, where unbelievers
or sinners are punished. Views differ as to whether hell is eternal and whether its
punishment is spiritual or physical. Some Christians reject the notion altogether.
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Catholic Christians also believe in purgatory, a temporary place of punishment for
Christians who have died with unconfessed sins.
For more specific Christian views about the afterlife, following are doctrinal statements
from several different Christian denominations and organizations on the afterlife.
Assemblies of God:
The resurrection of those who have fallen asleep in Christ and their translation together
with those who are alive and remain unto the coming of the Lord is the imminent and
blessed hope of the church. The second coming of Christ includes the rapture of the
saints, which is our blessed hope, followed by the visible return of Christ with His saints
to reign on earth for one thousand years. This millennial reign will bring the salvation of
national Israel, and the establishment of universal peace. There will be a final judgment
in which the wicked dead will be raised and judged according to their works. Whosoever
is not found written in the Book of Life, together with the devil and his angels, the beast
and the false prophet, will be consigned to the everlasting punishment in the lake which
burneth with fire and brimstone, which is the second death. We, according to His
promise, look for new heavens and a new earth wherein dwelleth righteousness.
Christianity Today Magazine:
At the end of the age, the bodies of the dead shall be raised. The righteous shall enter into
full possession of eternal bliss in the presence of God, and the wicked shall be
condemned to eternal death.
Evangelical Free Church of America:
We believe in the bodily resurrection of the dead; of the believer to everlasting
blessedness and joy with the Lord; of the unbeliever to judgment and everlasting
conscious punishment.
Friends United Meeting (Quaker):
We believe, according to the Scriptures, that there shall be a resurrection from the dead,
both of the just and of the unjust, (Acts 24:15) and that God hath appointed a day in
which He will judge the world in righteousness, by Jesus Christ whom He hath ordained.
(Acts 17:31) For, as saith the apostle, "We must all appear before the judgment seat of
Christ, that every one may receive the things done in his body, according to that he hath
done, whether it be good or bad." (2 Cor 5:10). We sincerely believe, not only a
resurrection in Christ from the fallen and sinful state here, but a rising and ascending into
glory with Him hereafter; that when He at last appears we may appear with Him in glory.
But that all the wicked, who live in rebellion against the light of grace, and die finally
impenitent, shall come forth to the resurrection of condemnation. And that the soul of
every man and woman shall be reserved, in its own distinct and proper being, and shall
have its proper body as God is pleased to give it. It is sown a natural body, it is raised a
spiritual body; (1 Cor 15:44) that being first which is natural and afterward that which is
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spiritual.
... We believe that the punishment of the wicked and the blessedness of the righteousness
shall be everlasting, according to the declaration of our compassionate Redeemer, to
whom the judgment is committed, "These shall go away into eternal punishment, but the
righteous into eternal life." (RV, Matt 25:46)
Lutheran Church (Augsburg Confession, 1530):
Also they [Lutheran churches] teach that at the Consummation of the World Christ will
appear for judgment, and will raise up all the dead; He will give to the godly and elect
eternal life and everlasting joys, but ungodly men and the devils He will condemn to be
tormented without end. They condemn the Anabaptists, who think that there will be an
end to the punishments of condemned men and devils. They condemn also others who are
now spreading certain Jewish opinions, that before the resurrection of the dead the godly
shall take possession of the kingdom of the world, the ungodly being everywhere
suppressed.
Mennonite Church in the USA:
We believe that, just as God raised Jesus from the dead, we also will be raised from the
dead. At Christ's glorious coming again for judgment, the dead will come out of their
graves"--those who have done good, to the resurrection of life, and those who have done
evil, to the resurrection of condemnation." The righteous will rise to eternal life with
God, and the unrighteous to hell and separation from God. Thus, God will bring justice to
the persecuted and will confirm the victory over sin, evil, and death itself.
We look forward to the coming of a new heaven and a new earth, and a new Jerusalem,
where the people of God will no longer hunger, thirst, or cry, but will sing praises: "To
the One seated on the throne and to the Lamb be blessing and honor and glory and might
forever and ever! Amen!"
Presbyterian Church in the USA:
If there is a Presbyterian narrative about life after death, this is it: When you die, your
soul goes to be with God, where it enjoys God's glory and waits for the final judgment.
At the final judgment bodies are reunited with souls, and eternal rewards and
punishments are handed out. As the Scots Confession notes, final judgment is also "the
time of refreshing and restitution of all things."And it is clearly the case that both the
Scots Confession and the Westminster Confession of Faith want to orient the present-day
life of believers around this future. But the Bible spends more time focusing on new life
here than on life after death. So do all our more recent confessions. Although the
Confession of 1967 mentions life after death, it does so only briefly. Its focus is on new
life now and on the church's ministry of reconciliation.
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Southern Baptist Convention:
God, in His own time and in His own way, will bring the world to its appropriate end.
According to His promise, Jesus Christ will return personally and visibly in glory to the
earth; the dead will be raised; and Christ will judge all men in righteousness. The
unrighteous will be consigned to Hell, the place of everlasting punishment. The righteous
in their resurrected and glorified bodies will receive their reward and will dwell forever in
Heaven with the Lord.
United Church of Christ:
God promises to all who trust in the gospel forgiveness of sins and fullness of grace,
courage in the struggle for justice and peace,the presence of the Holy Spirit in trial and
rejoicing, and eternal life in that kingdom which has no end.
United Methodist Church (on purgatory):
The Romish doctrine concerning purgatory, pardon, worshiping, and adoration, as well of
images as of relics, and also invocation of saints, is a fond thing, vainly invented, and
grounded upon no warrant of Scripture, but repugnant to the Word of God.
Christian Beliefs on Hell
What is hell?
In Christian theology, hell is the place or state into which unrepentant sinners pass after
this life. Hell is generally thought to be eternal, and to include both punishment (poena
sensus) and separation from God (poena damni).
Although not central to the Christian faith, the doctrine of hell has been a significant part
of historical Christian theology throughout its history.
Hell was a strong incentive to lead a righteous life in the early church. It was the setting
for Dante's literary masterpiece The Inferno. It was fear of hell and judgment that terrified
Martin Luther before his spiritual enlightenment. The doctrine of hell was central to the
Jonathan Edwards' famous sermon "Sinners in the Hands of An Angry God" and many
others like it.
For some, however, especially since the Enlightenment, hell has also been a major
stumbling block to acceptance of Christianity. Some Christian groups no longer believe
in an eternal hell, or at least regard belief in it as unnecessary.
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This article will explore the doctrine of hell as it developed first in the sacred texts of
Christianity and then in the hands of Christian theologians over the centuries. It
concludes with a summary of modern Christian beliefs about hell, by way of quotes and
excerpts from Christian groups.
The Word "Hell"
The word "hell" in English Bibles is used to translate the Hebrew word Sheol (and its
Greek equivalent Hades) and the Greek word Gehenna. The English word derives from
the Anglo-Saxon meaning "to conceal" or "to cover," which is similar to the meanings of
Sheol and Hades.
In the Old Testament, Sheol (which is also sometimes translated "grave" or "pit") denotes
the underworld or the place of departed spirits. "The notion reflects an undeveloped and
shadowy belief in the future life which was gradually superseded by the more defined
beliefs of later Judaism."
Gehenna ("the Valley of Hinnom") is the Greek translation of a Hebrew word that seems
to refer to an actual place on earth. The identity of Hinnom is not known for certain, but
scholars have suggested an area southwest of Jerusalem near the Cedron. Gehenna is
mentioned in Jos. 15:8 and 18:16, and in 2 Kings, it is described as a place of human
sacrifice (16:3, 21:6) that was polluted (23:10-12). Jeremiah warned that one day would
be renamed "Valley of Slaughter" (Jer. 7:32, 19:6). In later Jewish thought, Gehenna was
a place of punishment for apostates and other great sinners (e.g., 1 Enoch 27:2, 90:26; 2
Esdras 7:36-38). A statement dating to 1200 AD that fires were continually kept burning
in the Valley of Hinnom is generally regarded as reliable, although no earlier reference
has yet been found.
Hell in the Old Testament
The idea of hell (as understood in Christianity) is virtually absent from the Old
Testament, which has very little to say about the afterlife at all. A possible mention hell
in the Old Testament is this prophecy about the end times:
"Multitudes who sleep in the dust of the earth will awake: some to everlasting life, others to shame and
everlasting contempt." (Daniel 12:2, NIV)
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Another notable passage that likely contributes to Christian imagery of hell is Isaiah
66:24, which also refers to the end times:
"And they will go out and look upon the dead bodies of those who rebelled against me; their worm will not
die, nor will their fire be quenched, and they will be loathsome to all mankind.
Other passages that speak of the afterlife seem to indicate extinction of the soul after
death (see, e.g., Ecclesiastes 9:10). Rabbis have generally the taught the existence of a
hell-like place for the unrighteous, but many Jews, both historical and modern, do not
believe in hell or an afterlife.
Hell in the New Testament
In the New Testament, the notion of hell is more clearly expressed, but still not in a
systematic way. In many cases, "death" and "destruction" are the only mentioned
penalties for rejecting God (e.g., Matthew 7:13, John 3:16, Acts 4:12, Romans 6:23, 2
Thessalonians 1:9, James 1:15). Also, as noted in the section above, the same
terminology is often used in the New Testament that in the Jewish context may have
suggested nothing more than physical death and destruction of the soul.
[New Testament passages that have suggested eternal torment include the following:]
"Anyone who says, 'You fool!' will be in danger of the fire of hell." (Matthew 5:22, quoting Jesus)
"And if your right hand causes you to sin, cut it off and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of
your body than for your whole body to go into hell." (Matthew 5:29, quoting Jesus; see parallel passage in
Mark 9:44, which adds, "where the fire never goes out.")
"Do not be afraid of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather, be afraid of the One who can
destroy both soul and body in hell." (Matthew 10:28, quoting Jesus)
"As the weeds are pulled up and burned in the fire, so it will be at the end of the age. The Son of Man will
send out his angels, and they will weed out of his kingdom everything that causes sin and all who do evil.
They will throw them into the fiery furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth." (Matthew
13:40-42, quoting Jesus)
"Throw that worthless servant outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of
teeth." (Parable of the Talents, Matthew 25:30)
"Then he [the King] will say to those on his left, 'Depart from me, you who are cursed, into the eternal fire
prepared for the devil and his angels." (Parable of the Sheep and the Goats, Matthew 25:41)
"The tongue also is a fire, a world of evil among the parts of the body. It corrupts the whole person, sets the
whole course of his life on fire, and is itself set on fire by hell." (James 3:6)
"The sea gave up the dead that were in it, and death and Hades gave up the dead that were in them, and
each person was judged according to what he had done. Then death and Hades were thrown into the lake of
fire. The lake of fire is the second death. If anyone's name was not found written in the book of life, he was
thrown into the lake of fire." (Revelation 20:13-15)
"The cowardly, the unbelieving, the vile...the idolaters and all liars - their place will be in the fiery lake of
burning sulpher. This is the second death." (Revelation 21:8)
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The Doctrine of Hell in the Church Fathers
In the church fathers (post-New-Testament Christian leaders and theologians), the
doctrine of hell quickly becomes more well-defined as a place of eternal torment, which
is generally seen as physical in nature:
"The way of darkness is crooked, and it is full of cursing. It is the way of eternal death
with punishment." (Pseudo-Barnabas, c. 70-130 AD)
"You should fear what is truly death, which is reserved for those who will be condemned
to the eternal fire. It will afflict those who are committed to it even to the end." (Letter to
Diognetus, c. 125-200)
"[The martyrs] despised all the torments of this world, redeeming themselves from
eternal punishment by the suffering of a single hour.... For they kept before their view
escape from that fire which is eternal and will never be quenched." (Martyrdom of
Polycarp, c. 135)
"Sinners will be consumed because they sinned and did not repent." (Shepherd of
Hermas, c. 150)
"Those who have not known God and do evil are condemned to death. However, those
who have known God and have seen his mighty works, but still continue in evil, will be
chastised doubly, and will die forever." (Shepherd of Hermas, c. 150)
"We believe...that every man will suffer punishment in eternal fire according to the
merits of his deed. ... Sensation remains to all who have ever lived, and eternal
punishment is laid up." (Justin Martyr, c. 160)
"Hell [Gehenna] is a place where those who have lived wickedly are to be punished."
(Justin Martyr, c. 160)
"Some are sent to be punished unceasingly into judgment and condemnation of fire."
(Justin Martyr, c. 160)
"We who are now easily susceptible to death, will afterwards receive immortality with
either enjoyment or with pain." (Tatian, c. 160)
"We are persuaded that when we are removed from the present life we will live another
life, better than the present one...or, if they fall with the rest, they will endure a worse life,
one in fire. For God has not made us as sheep or beasts of burden, who are mere byproducts. For animals perish and are annihilated. On these grounds, it is not likely that we
would wish to do evil." (Athenagoras, c. 175)
"To the unbelieving and despisers...there will be anger and wrath, tribulation and anguish.
At the end, everlasting fire will possess such men." (Theophilus, c. 180)
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"Eternal fire is prepared for sinners. The Lord has plainly declared this and the rest of the
Scriptures demonstrate it." (Irenaeus, c. 180)
"All souls are immortal, even those of the wicked. Yet, it would be better for them if they
were not deathless. For they are punished with the endless vengeance of quenchless fire.
Since they do not die, it is impossible for them to have an end put to their misery."
(Clement of Alexandria, c. 195; from a post-Nicene manuscript fragment)
"We [Christians] alone make a real effort to attain a blameless life. We do this under the
influence of... the magnitude of the threatened torment. For it is not merely longenduring; rather, it is everlasting." (Tertullian, c. 197)
"Gehenna... is a reservoir of secret fire under the earth for purposes of punishment."
(Tertullian, c. 197)
"There is neither limit nor termination of these torments. There, the intelligent fire burns
the limbs and restores them. It feeds on them and nourishes them. ... However, no one
except a profane man hesitates to believe that those who do not know God are deservedly
tormented." (Mark Minucius Felix, c. 200)
However, some early church fathers, such as Origen of Alexandria and Gregory of Nyssa,
questioned the eternality of hell and the literal interpretation of it as a fiery place.
Modern Christian Views of Hell
Modern Christian views of hell tend to emphasize its spiritual aspects over the notion of
physical suffering or material fire. Hell is seen as a logical extension of the free will of
mankind to reject God's gracious advances, even for eternity, and its punishment as a
realization of one's mistake and the great remorse that would follow. Many modern
Christians also question hell's eternality in favor of some form of universalism (all are
saved in the end) or annihilationism (wicked souls are destroyed).
Following is a sampling of the positions of various Christian denominations on the issue
of hell.
It is impossible to describe the glory and splendor of heaven and the terror and torment of hell. Whether
taken literally or figuratively, the meaning is the same: Hell is a place where one will experience total
separation from God; heaven enjoys the total presence of God. Knowing that this is the horrible end
awaiting the wicked, the Assemblies of God is strongly motivated to win the lost before it is too late.
(Assemblies of God)
To die in mortal sin without repenting and accepting God's merciful love means remaining separated from
him for ever by our own free choice. This state of definitive self- exclusion from communion with God and
the blessed is called "hell." (Catechism of the Catholic Church)
The statement of Christ in Matthew 25, and elsewhere, are taken at face value. It is believed that after death
each man must come before God in judgment and that he will be judged according to the deeds done while
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he lived (Hebrews 9:27). After judgment is pronounced he will spend eternity either in heaven or hell.
(Churches of Christ)
We believe that glorious and everlasting life is assured to all who savingly believe in, and obediently
follow, Jesus Christ our Lord; and that the finally impenitent shall suffer eternally in hell. (Church of the
Nazarene)
This hope for the final salvation of humanity and the eternal universal restitution of all things in heaven and
on earth ... is drawn from the unlimited promise of the Gospel and the magnitude of God's grace made
known to the world through Christ. (Evangelical Lutheran Church of America)
We believe in the bodily resurrection of the dead; of the believer to everlasting blessedness and joy with the
Lord; of the unbeliever to judgment and everlasting conscious punishment. (Evangelical Free Church of
America)
The moral progress of the soul, either for better or for worse, ends at the very moment of the separation of
the body and soul; at that very moment the definite destiny of the soul in the everlasting life is decided. ...
The Orthodox Church believes that at this moment the soul of the dead person begins to enjoy ... the life in
Paradise or to undergo the life in Hell. There is no way of repentance, no way of escape, no reincarnation
and no help from the outside world. (Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America)
Arguments For An Eternal Hell
Among the common arguments advanced for the existence of an eternal hell are these:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Words and pictures in the New Testament imply finality.
The doctrine of hell has been believed for a long time by eminent theologians.
Offers of pardon are restricted to the present world.
The judgment occurs at the close of the redemptive era, and hence is final.
Character tends to final permanance.
The conscience expects and demands retribution in another life.
Arguments Against An Eternal Hell
Commonly presented arguments against the existence of an eternal hell include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Words and pictures in the New Testament imply death and destruction (i.e., annihilation).
"Eternal punishment" can refer to results that are eternal, not an eternal process.
Vindictive justice is not compatible with the God of love and compassion revealed in the New
Testament.
The punishment does not fit the crime (i.e. non-eternal sin and disbelief).
Hell contradicts the Christian assertion of the final victory of God over evil.
Christian Denominations
Over the centuries, Christianity has divided into numerous denominations. Each
denomination has its own distinctive beliefs or practices, but they are commonly
considered branches of the same religion because they agree on such fundamentals as the
Bible, the Trinity, and the teachings of the Nicene Creed. The way in which members
regard other denominations varies from mutual respect and acceptance to suspicion and
denial that the other group is really "Christian."
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The three main branches of Christianity are Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant (some
would add Anglican as a fourth). Most of the denominations that exist today developed in
the 500 years since the Protestant Reformation and fall under the "Protestant" branch.
This section provides information on some of the major denominations that exist today,
along with a brief history of how there came to be so many and many comparisons of
their similarities and differences.
Roman Catholic
Roman Catholicism is the largest Christian group that exists today, with more than a billion
adherents.
Eastern Orthodox
The Orthodox Church became a distinct branch in the 11th century "Great Schism." It is
prominent in Russia, Greece and nearby areas.
Protestant
Protestantism encompasses numerous denominations and embraces a wide theological
spectrum, but all share certain distinctives.
Anglican/Episcopalian
Anglicanism is characterized by a via media (middle way) between Catholicism and
Protestantism.
Amish
The Amish are members of an Anabaptist Christian denomination who are especially known
for their separation from society and rejection of modern technology.
Baptists
Baptists are the largest of the Free Church denominations and are characterized by adult
baptism and encouraging religious freedom and separation of church and state.
Lutheran
Lutheranism, based on the teachings of Martin Luther, is one of the largest Protestant
denominations in the world today.
Pentecostalism
Pentecol Christianity, just over 100 years old, is the largest Christian
denomination in the world.
Presbyterian
Presbyterian and Reformed churches share a common origin in the 16th-century Swiss
Reformation and the teachings of John Calvin.
Quakers
Quakers are a 17th century Reformation movement started by George Fox well-known for
their peace testimony.
Seventh-day Adventists
A group known for its Sabbath observance, expectation of Christ, and emphasis on physical
health.
137
Comparison of Facts and Statistics of
Christian Denominations
Catholic
Gradual
Date Founded development;
1054 AD (Great
as Distinct
Denomination Schism between
East and West)
Place(s)
Founded
Rome; Western
Roman Empire
Orthodox
Lutheran
Reformed/
Presbyterian
Methodist/
Wesleyan
Anglican/
Episcopalian
Gradual
development;
1530
1054 AD
(Augsburg
(Great
Confession)
Schism) (see
GOAA)
c. 1520
(Reformed);
1787
1560
(Presbyterian)
1534 (King
Henry's Act
of
Supremacy)
Constantinople,
Eastern Roman
Empire
Switzerland,
Scotland
England
England
Ulrich
Zwingli,
Martin
John
Luther,
Calvin,
Philip
Melanchthon Theodore
Beza, John
Knox
John Wesley
King Henry
VIII, Queen
Elizabeth I,
Thomas
Cromwell,
Thomas
Cranmer,
Hugh
Latimer,
Nicholas
Ridley
Reformed
Theology,
Scottish
Reformation
English
Reformation
English
Reformation
2.5 million in
the PCUSA
8.3 million in
UMC in 2003
70 million in
161 countries
in the
Anglican
Communion
(CofE); 2.3
million in the
US (Encyc.
Britannica)
Switzerland,
Scotland
England, USA
England
various eastern
church fathers;
Patriarch
Michael
Cerularius
(1054)
Founders (in
addition to
Jesus,
Apostles &
Church
Fathers)
St. Peter
(Catholic view);
various bishops
of Rome
Reformation
Roots
Catholic/Countern/a
Reformation
Germany
German
Reformation
Number of
Adherents
65 million in the
US (Encyc.
Britannica); 1.5
billion worldwide
(Adherents.com)
5.9 million in
the US (Encyc.
66 million
Britannica); 225
worldwide
million
(LWF)
worldwide
(Adherents.com)
Dominant
Regions
France, Italy,
Spain, Latin
America, USA
Russia, Greece
138
Germany,
Scandanavia
Original
Language
Latin
Worship
Guide
Roman Missal
Church
Government
episcopal
German
French
English
English
Book of
Concord
Directory for
Worship
Book of
Discipline
Book of
Common
Prayer
episcopal
episcopal
presbyterian
"connectional" episcopal
n/a
Greek Orthodox
Archdiocese of
America;
Orthodox
Church in
America;
Antiochian
Orthodox
Archdiocese of
North America
Evangelical
Lutheran
Church in
America
(ELCA);
Lutheran
Church Missouri
Synod
(LCMS)
Presbyterian
Church
(USA)
(PCUSA)
United
Methodist
Church
(UMC)
Episcopalian
Church in the
USA
Other
Churches
n/a
British
Orthodox
Church; Serbian
Orthodox
Chuch;
Orthodox
Church of
Finland;
Russian
Orthodox
Church
Evangelical
Lutheran
Church in
Italy;
Church of
Norway (for
more, see
LWF)
Presbyterian
Church of
Wales;
Reformed
Church of
France
Methodist
Church in
Great Britain
Church of
England
(CofE);
Scottish
Episcopal
Church
World
Council of
Churches
Member?
no
some yes; some
no
ELCA - yes;
LCMS - no
yes
yes
yes
Major
Churches in
the USA
Catholic
Greek
Reformed/
Lutheran Presbyterian
Orthodox
139
Methodist/
Wesleyan
Anglican/
Episcopalian
Pentecostalism
In Christianity, a dove is a symbol of the Holy Spirit
What is Pentecostal Christianity? How is it the same and different as traditional Christianity? What is
speaking in tongues? These are a few of the common questions people have about Pentecostalism.
The largest and fastest-growing segment of Christianity today is Pentecostalism. It's
estimated that the movement has 500 million adherents worldwide. While the modernexpression of Pentecostal Christianity began in America in the early 20th century, by the
beginning of the 21st century, the movement gained significant strength in Africa, Asia,
and South America as well.
To understand the movement one must become familiar with its history and the
individuals that comprise it. Like other expressions of Christianity, the movement has
successes and failures, unification and division, heroes and villains. Yet what has united
all Pentecostals is the testimony of having experienced a unique gifting of the Holy Spirit
similar to the one that the early church experienced on the day of Pentecost as recorded in
Acts 2 in the New Testament.
Pentecostal Christianity Index
History
Origins of Pentecostalism
Charles Parham, Bethel Bible
College, and William Seymour
Teachings and Groups
Summary of Pentecostal
Theology
Pentecostal Christianity
Comparison Chart
What distinguishes
Compare church distinctions,
Pentecostals from other
numbers of adherents
expressions of Christianity
140
The Azusa St. Revival
Azusa St. was the location of a
three-year revival
The Charismatic Movement
When Pentecostal experience
entered non-Pentecostal
churches
Assemblies of God
The Association of Vineyard
Churches
The history and beliefs of
John Wimber helped put this
the largest Pentecostal
church network on the map in
denomination in the world
the 1980's
Church of God (Cleveland,
Tennessee)
The oldest, and second
largest, Pentecostal
denomination
Church of God in Christ
The largest African-American
Pentecostal denomination in
the world
Oneness Pentecostalism
Third Wave
International Church of the
Foursquare Gospel
Group outside of evangelical
Christianity because of
Coined by C. Peter Wagner,
unorthodox views of the
this term describes an
Trinity
important phase in Pentecostal
history
Neo-Pentecostalism
Speaking in Tongues
Snake Handling
Pentecostal experience in
traditionally non-Pentecostal
churches.
The gifts of tongues
Rare practice
141
The Church Fathers
Who Are the Church Fathers?
The term church fathers refers to Christian writers and theologians of the
first eight centuries of the Christian church, especially the period of
development up to 451 AD. The church fathers are sometimes further
divided into Apostolic Fathers, who wrote in the first century, and the
Ante-Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, who wrote before and after the
Tertullian
Council of Nicea (325 AD), respectively. The period during which the
church fathers wrote is known as the Patristic Period and the academic study of these
writers is called Patristics. Both terms derive from the Latin word pater, meaning
"father."
The church fathers are of great importance to Christianity because they formulated nearly
all of the Christian doctrine that is accepted by Christians today. They interpreted the
Bible in light of challenges from Greek thought and various heretical movements,
determined Christianity's relationship to Judaism, elaborated on theological concepts
such as the Trinity and salvation, and established the structure and organization of the
church.
The Patristic Period
The earliest church fathers wrote in the latter part of the first century (80-100 AD),
around the time the biblical canon was closed. These writers were especially concerned
with practical matters like faith, righteous living and church organization. The writings of
this period consist primarily of letters between churches and exhortations to keep the
faith in the midst of persecution. These writers are known as the "Apostolic Fathers" for
their close connection with the apostles, and include Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Hermas,
Polycarp and Papias, as well as the unknown authors of the Epistle of Barnabas, the
Epistle of Diognetus, 2 Clement, and the Didache.
Around the turn of the first century, Christian writers began to turn their attention
outward in defense of Christianity against false claims made by Roman persecutors and
demonstrating Christianity's reasonableness to minds trained on Greek philosophy. These
writings were usually addressed to Roman emperors or other pagan critics, and their
authors are known as the "Apologists." Among the most important apologists are Justin
Martyr and Tertullian. Augustine's lengthy City of God is also considered an apologetic
work.
The fathers of the second and third centuries also directed their efforts towards
combatting what they saw as heresy, or false interpretations of the Christian faith. After
142
the conversion of Emperor Constantine and the end of persecution in 313 AD, Christian
writers turned from apologetics to focus almost exclusively on this task. No longer
threatened from without, the church still faced threats from within. By the turn of the first
century AD, most Christian converts were Gentiles, not Jews. These converts brought
with them many ways of understanding Christianity, and often their perspectives on
Christianity were quite different from that of most church leaders. Thus the church
fathers from the fourth century onward were focused especially on the defense of what
they saw as the true Christian faith (orthodoxy) against corruptions or misunderstandings
(heresy).
Further complicating the situation, the conversion of the emperor had made theology a
political matter. After Constantine's conversion, many new converts flooded into the
church, for now Christianity was not only legal, it was the religion of the emperor and
therefore politically advantageous. Furthermore, Constantine and his successors viewed
Christianity as a means for unifying the empire, and they had no patience for what they
regarded as petty doctrinal differences. Thus Christian teachers who taught unorthodox
doctrines were not only excommunicated from the church but exiled from the empire.
Not surprisingly, the success of a particular theological position was sometimes directly
related to who had the ear of the emperor at the moment. Athanasius, honored by all
Christians today as a great defender of orthodoxy, was exiled and reinstated no less than
eight times as the political winds shifted.
Theological Schools in the Early Church
Three important geographical areas emerged in the patristic period, each with a
distinctive theological approach. These are sometimes called schools, as in schools of
thought, not universities.
Alexandria. Alexandria was a busy port town in northern Egypt founded by Alexander the Great. As the
birthplace of both Neoplatonism and Philo, Alexandria had already established itself as a center for Greek
philosophy by the first century. Not surprisingly, then, the theology of Greek-speaking Alexandria is
characterized by its close connection with Platonic philosophy. Its Christology tended to emphasize the
divinity of Christ and its interpretation of Scripture was often allegorical. Among the most prominent
Alexandrian fathers are Clement, Origen and Didymus the Blind.
Antioch. Another Greek-speaking city, Antioch was an important city in the region of Cappadocia
(modern-day Turkey). Christianity was established early here - the city even plays a prominent role in the
New Testament book of Acts. Antiochene theologians tended to emphasize the moral example and
humanity of Christ and to interpret Scripture in light of its historical context. The philosophy of Antioch
was more influenced by Aristotle than Plato. Important Antiochene fathers include Diodore of Tarsus and
John Chrysostom. Also from this region are the eminent "Cappadocian Fathers": Basil of Caesarea,
Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus.
Western North Africa. Located primarily in modern-day Algeria, this region included the great city of
Carthage, which for a time rivaled Rome in power. North African theologians wrote in Latin, and tended to
be more practical than their philosophically-minded Greek counterparts. Notable theologians of this region
include Cyprian, Tertullian, and Augustine.
143
With this "big picture" in mind, below are brief guides to the lives and writings of some
of the most important church fathers, presented in chronological order.
Clement of Rome




Traditionally held to be the third bishop of Rome (i.e., pope)
Author of 1 Clement, a letter to the Corinthian church
Many other writings ascribed to him that are probably not authentic (including 2
Clement, the Clementine Homilies and Recognitions)
For more information, see Clement of Rome.
Hermas


Lived in Rome
Nothing is known of him except that he is the author of The Shepherd, a record of visions regarded
by much of the Eastern Church as scripture and is included immediately after the New Testament
in the early manuscript Codex Sinaiticus
Ignatius of Antioch (d. 107)





Bishop of Antioch
Traveled under guard from Asia Minor to Rome to be martyred
Met with at least five churches along the way (Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles,
Philadelphia, Smyrna)
Author of letters to each of these churches plus one to Rome and one to
Polycarp, which were collected and venerated shortly after his death
Viewed the office of bishop as an important safeguard of the unity of the
Church
Papias (c.60-130)



Bishop of Hierapolis (Asia Minor)
Wrote Expositions of the Sayings of the Lord (known only from quotations in Irenaeus and
Eusebius), which contains oral traditions and legends
His Expositions is especially important for its information on the writing of the gospels
Polycarp (c.69-c.155)




Bishop of Smyrna (in Turkey)
Only his Epistle to the Phillipians survives
According to The Martyrdom of Polycarp, a contemporary account, he was arrested during a
pagan festival and burnt to death when he refused to recant his faith
Feast day is February 23
Justin Martyr (c. 100-c.165)

Born in Samaria
144





Converted from paganism after a long search for truth
Considered the greatest of the Apologists
Wrote First Apology, Second Apology, and Dialogue with Trypho the Jew
Argued that God had provided hints of Christ in Greek philosophy through the logos spermatikos
("seed-bearing word")
Beheaded for refusing to sacrifice to pagan gods
Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130-c.200)








Born in Smyra (in Turkey), moved to Rome, then settled in Lyons
Disciple of Polycarp
Bishop of Lyons (France) from c. 178 to c. 200
Wrote against Gnosticism, especially that of Valentinus
Most significant work is Against Heresies (full title Detection and Overthrow of
the Falsely Named "Knowledge")
Major themes include the Christian doctrine of salvation and the importance of
holding to apostolic tradition in the face of other interpretations
Taught the notion of "recapitulation," in which Christ is the consummation of creation and God's
purpose for the world
For more information, see Irenaeus of Lyons.
Hippolytus of Rome (c.170-c.236)






Roman priest
Wrote against Sabellianism
Criticized Pope Callistus for lax policy of readmitting penitents to communion and may have been
elected by a group of dissidents as a rival pope
Principal work is Refutation of all Heresies (discovered in the 19th cent.), which argues that all
heresies derive from pagan philosophy
Historically important is his treatise The Apostolic Tradition (written c.215), which describes in
detail the sacraments of ordination, baptism and the Eucharist
Feast day: August 13 (West) or January 30 (East)
Origen of Alexandria (c.185-c.254)









Widely regarded as the most important theologian and biblical scholar of the early
Greek church.
Born of Christian parents in Alexandria, Egypt
Father was martyred and Origen was prevented from also seeking martyrdom by
his mother's intervention
Lived an ascetic life and legend has it that he castrated himself so he could teach
women without scandal
Worked as a teacher in the Alexandrian catechetical school, an unordained preacher, and a prolific
theological writer
Major work is the Hexapla, a synopsis of six versions of the Old Testament
Other works include the Stromateis (Miscellanies), On the Resurrection, On First Principles, On
Prayer, and numerous commentaries and sermons
Origen's theology focused on the goodness of God and the freedom of mankind
Some of his teachings have been controversial, such as his suggestion of the preexistence of souls,
the inferiority of the Son, and eventual salvation of all beings including Satan
145


He is regarded as a saint by some and a heretic by others, and was never canonized by the church.
The eminent church historian Henry Chadwick puts it this way: "If orthodoxy were a matter of
intention, no theologian could be more orthodox than Origen, none more devoted to the cause of
Christian faith."
For more information, see Origen of Alexandria.
Tertullian (c.160-c.225)







Born in Carthage, North Africa
First important Latin church father
Converted to Christianity sometime before 197 AD
Wrote numerous theological, moral, and polemical works, including Apology,
The Soldier's Crown, On Penitence, On the Incarnation of Christ, Against
Heretics, Against Marcion, and Against Praxeus
Was rigorous in his insistence on separation from pagan society and adherence
to the faith under any circumstances
Though he made use of philosophy and rational argument, he is known for arguing that pagan
philosophy has no place in the church: "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" and "It is certain
because it is impossible."
Another famous quote is: "The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church."
Athanasius (c. 296-c.373)







Bishop of Alexandria
Fought against any compromise with Arianism after the Council of Nicea (325 AD)
Was repeatedly deposed and exiled as the Arian party gained power, then restored to his position
as the other side ascended
Finally restored in 366
Wrote On the Incarnation of Christ sometime before 318
Also wrote Life of Antony, making monasticism known to the West
For more information, see Athanasius.
Jerome (c.342-420)





Born in Italy, lived for four years in Palestine as a hermit, was a secretary to Pope Damasus in
Rome, then settled in Bethlehem in 386 to study and write
Translated the Bible from Greek to Latin (Vulgate)
Advocated for the exclusion of the Apocrypha from the canonical Old Testament
Tradition has Jerome helping a lion by removing a thorn from its paw, so he is often depicted with
a lion in Christian art
Feast day: September 30
Augustine of Hippo (354-430)



The most important Latin church father
Has had a lasting impact on Catholicism, especially in the area of
ecclesiology, and his theology of original sin and unmerited grace has been
embraced by Protestantism
Born in North Africa of a pagan father and devoutly Christian mother
146






Studied rhetoric in Milan, where he indulged in pride and lust and began his search for truth
Briefly joined Manicheanism, but found it intellectually unsatisfactory
According to his spiritual autobiography (Confessions), after listening to the sermons of Ambrose
and observing the self-discipline of Christian monks, he converted to Catholic Christianity in a
garden while reading Romans
Unwillingly became Bishop of Hippo not long after his baptism
Wrote an apologetic work (City of God), a handbook for Christian living (Enchiridion of Faith,
Hope and Love), a theological work On the Trinity and a great deal of polemic works against the
Manicheans, Pelagians, and Donatists.
For more information, see Augustine of Hippo.
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147
ROMAN CATHOLICISM
Roman Catholicism
Catholicism as a Denomination
What is the Catholic Religion?
For the first thousand years of Christianity there was no "Roman Catholicism" as we
know it today, simply because there was no Eastern Orthodoxy or Protestantism to
distinguish it. There was only the "one, holy, catholic church" affirmed by the early
creeds, which was the body of Christian believers all over the world, united by common
traditions, beliefs, church structure and worship (catholic simply means "universal").
Thus, throughout the Middle Ages, if you were a Christian, you belonged to the Catholic
Church. Any Christianity other than the Catholic Church was a heresy, not a
denomination.
Being Catholic Today
Today, however, Roman Catholicism is not the only accepted Christian church. Thus to
be a Roman Catholic means to be a certain kind of Christian: one with unique beliefs,
practices and traditions that are distinct from those of other Christians. Nevertheless, the
Catholic Church continues to maintain that it alone has carried on the true tradition of the
apostolic church and has traditionally regarded dissenting groups as heresies, not
alternatives (Martin Luther was swiftly excommunicated). However, the recent Second
Vatican Council declared all baptized Christians to be "in a certain, although imperfect,
communion with the Catholic Church."
Although it did not begin at a specific point in history like the Protestant denominations,
in its long history Roman Catholicism has evolved into a distinctive branch of
Christianity with beliefs, practices and organization that differ from both Protestantism
and Orthodoxy.
The Makeup of Catholocism
Roman Catholicism is by far the largest Christian group. With more than one billion
adherents, Catholics constitute about half of the world's Christians. Catholicism is the
majority religion of Italy, Spain, and nearly all Latin American countries. In 2001, about
24 percent of Americans identified themselves as Catholic, making Catholicism the
148
largest Christian denomination in America (if the Protestant denominations are counted
individually). The next largest denomination, Baptist, was claimed by 16 percent of
Americans. Yet if Protestants are considered as one group, Catholics remain a minority
among America's Christians.
History of Catholicism
Roman Catholicism traces its history to the apostles, especially the Apostle Peter. St.
Peter is considered the first pope, and every pope since him is regarded as his spiritual
successor. This gives the leader of the church spiritual authority and provides a means for
resolving disputes that could divide the church. Through trials like persecution, heresy,
and the Reformation, the notion that the church leadership represents the continuation of
an unbroken line from the apostles and their teachings ("apostolic succession") has
contributed to the survival of Christianity.
The Catholic Pope
However, the idea of the "pope" did not exist from the beginning of the church. It was not
until several centuries after Christ that the church began to develop into the "Roman
Catholic Church" as we think of it today, with its particular doctrines, practices, and
hierarchical system of authority. Thus Catholics and non-Catholics alike are able to claim
they are most faithful to the message of the apostles and the early church. From the
Catholic perspective, the early church is faithfully continued in the developments of later
centuries, while non-Catholics tend to regard the church as having corrupted the original
message of Christianity.
In the years of persecution prior to the Emperor's conversion, the church was focused
primarily on survival. There were prominent church leaders whose authority was
recognized - primarily those who had known the apostles - but no central authority.
But with the conversion of Emperor Constantine in 318 AD, the church began to adopt a
governmental structure mirroring that of the Empire, in which geographical provinces
were ruled by bishops based in the major city of the area. Soon, the bishops of major
cities in the empire emerged as preeminent, including the bishops of Jerusalem,
Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, and Constantinople. It was natural that Rome would
eventually become the most important of these. It was not only the capital of the empire,
but the city in which the apostles Peter and Paul were believed to have been martyred.
The Roman bishop Leo I (440-461) is considered the first pope by historians, as he was
the first to claim ultimate authority over all of Christendom. In his writings one can find
all the traditional arguments for papal authority, most notably that which asserts Christ
had designated Peter and his successors the "rock" on which the church would be built.
Leo's claims were strengthened greatly by his own impressive career as Bishop of Rome.
In 445 he earned the express support of Emperor Valentian, who said the Bishop of Rome
was the law for all. In 451, he called the important Council of Chalcedon, which put to
149
rest Christological issues that had been plaguing the church. In 452, he impressively
saved Rome from Attila the Hun. It is said that the Pope met the warrior at the gates and
somehow persuaded him to spare the city. Legend has it that Attila saw Peter and Paul
marching along with Leo to defend their city. In 455 he was not as successful with
Vandal invaders, but led negotiations with them and succeeded in preventing the burning
of Rome (it was, however, plundered).
Catholic Beliefs
Roman Catholic beliefs do not differ drastically from those of the other major branches of
Christianity - Greek Orthodoxy and Protestantism. All three main branches hold to the
doctrine of the Trinity, the divinity of Christ, the inspiration of the Bible, and so on. But
on more minor doctrinal points, there are clear Catholic distinctives in belief.
Distinctive Roman Catholic beliefs include the special authority of the pope, the ability of
saints to intercede on behalf of believers, the concept of Purgatory as a place of afterlife
purification before entering Heaven, and the doctrine of transubstantiation - that is, that
the bread used in the Eucharist becomes the true body of Christ when blessed by a priest.
Distinctive Catholic Practices
Catholic Mass
With the possible exception of some Anglican churches, the Catholic liturgy tends to be
more formal and ritualized than its Protestant counterparts. Services follow a prescribed
liturgy and priests wear more elaborate vestments than most Protestant ministers.
Catholics usually celebrate the Eucharist more often than do Protestants, usually weekly.
In Catholicism, the Eucharist is called the Mass.
Catholic Sacraments
Catholics observe seven sacraments, which are religious rituals believed to be
commanded by God and effective in conferring grace on the believer.
There are several Catholic monastic orders, the most well known being the Jesuits,
Dominicans, Fransciscans, and Augustinians. Catholic monks and nuns take vows of
poverty, chastity and obedience and devote themselves to a simple life focused on
worshipping God.
Unlike their counterparts in both Protestant and Orthodox churches, Catholic priests take
vows of celibacy. This practice is rooted in the papacy's early connections with
monasticism, but has become controversial in recent years in part as a result of child
abuse scandals.
Other distinctive Catholic practices include veneration of saints, use of the crucifix, and
the use of rosary beads in prayer.
“Religions and Belief Systems”. Religion Facts. 3February2014< http://www.religionfacts.com/>.
150
CATECHISM OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
(ECCE and W & L Publications, 1994)
81
82
SCRIPTURE
Sacred scripture is the speech of God as it is put down in writing under the breath of the Holy
Spirit. (DV9) And (Holy) Tradition transmits in its entirety the Word of God which has been
entrusted to the apostles by Christ the Lord and the Holy Spirit. It transmits it to the successors of
the apostles so that, enlightened by the Spirit of truth, they may faithfully preserve, expound and
spread it abroad by their preaching. ( II - 81 p 33, DV9).
As a result, the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted
does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the Holy Scriptures alone. Both
Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honored with equal sentiments of devotion and
reverence. (II - 82 p 33).
OUR PARTICIPATION IN CHRIST’S SACRIFICE
618
The Cross is the unique sacrifice of Christ, the “one mediator between God and man. But because
in his incarnate divine person he has in some way united himself to every man, “the possibility of
being partners, in a way known to God, in the paschal mystery” is offered to all men. He calls His
disciples to “take up(their) cross and follow (him), for Christ also suffered for (us), leaving (us) an
example so that (we) should follow in his steps. (618 p 152)
CHURCH
780
The Church in this world is the sacrament of salvation, the sign and the instrument of the
communion of God and men. (780 p 191).
805
The Church is the body of Christ. Through the Spirit and his action in the sacraments, above all
the Eucharist, Christ, who once was dead and is now risen, establishes the community of believers
as his own body. (805 p 197).
846
Outside the Church there is no salvation. How are we to understand this affirmation, often
repeated by the Church Fathers? Re-formulated positively, it means that all salvation comes from
Christ the Head through the Church which is his body. (846 p 206)
869
Basing itself on Scripture and Tradition, the council teaches the church, a pilgrim now on earth, is
necessary for salvation; the one Christ is the mediator and the way of salvation; he is present to us
in his body which is the Church. He himself explicitly asserted the necessity of faith and Baptism,
and thereby affirmed as the same time the necessity of the Church which men enter through
Baptism as through a door. Hence they could not be saved who, knowing that through Christ,
would refuse either to enter in, or to remain in it. (846 pp 206 - 207)
The Church is apostolic. She is built on a lasting foundation: the twelve apostles of the Lamb (Rev
21:14). She is indestructible (Mt 16:18). She is upheld infallibly in the truth: Christ governs her
through Peter and the other apostles, who are present in theirs successors, the Pope and the college
of bishops. (869 p 212)
FORGIVENESS OF SINS
985
Baptism is the first and chief sacrament of the forgiveness of sins; it unites us to Christ, who died
and rose, and gives us the Holy Spirit. (985 p 234).
986
By Christ’s will, the Church possesses the power to forgive the sins of the baptized and exercises
it through bishops and priests normally in the sacrament of Penance. (986 p 234)
151
987
In the forgiveness of sin, both priests and sacraments are instruments which our Lord Jesus Christ,
the only author and liberal giver of salvation, wills to use in order to efface our sins and give us
the grace of justification. (987 p 234, Roman Catechism 1,11,6)
RESURRECTION
998
Who will rise? All the dead will rise, “those who have done good, to the resurrection of life, and
those who have done evil, to the resurrection of judgment. (998 p 237)
PURIFICATION (At Purgatory)
1030
All who die in God’s grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of
their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness
necessary to enter the joy of heaven. (1030 p 234)
1031
The Church give the name Purgatory to this final purification of the elect, which is entirely
different from the punishment of the damned…. Council of Trent. (1031 p 244)
JUDGMENT DAY
1059
The holy Roman Church firmly believes and confesses that the Day of Judgment, all men will
appear in their own bodies before Christ’s tribunal to render an account of their own deeds. (1059
p 249/Council of Lyons II (1274): DS 859; cf DS 1549)
THE MASS
1069
The word liturgy originally meant a public work or service in the name of/on behalf of the people.
In Christian Tradition it means the participation of the People of God in the work of God, through
the liturgy Christ, our redeemer and high priest, continues the work of redemption in, with and
through his Church. (1069 P 255)
1105
The Epiclesis (invocation upon) is the intercession in which the priest begs the Father to send the
Holy Spirit, the Sanctifier, so that the offerings may become the body and blood of Christ and that
the faithful, by receiving them, may themselves become a living offering to God. (1105 p 267)
THE SACRAMENTS OF FAITH
1122
Christ sent his apostles so that “repentance and forgiveness of sins should be preached in his name
to all nations” ‘Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the
Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.” The mission to baptize, and so the sacramental
mission, is implied in the mission to evangelize because the sacrament is prepared by the word of
God and by the faith which is assent to his word. (1122 p 270)
1123
“The purpose of the sacraments is to sanctify men, to build up the body of Christ and finally, to
give worship to God. (1123 p 271)
1127
Celebrated worthily in faith, the sacraments confer the grace that they signify. They are efficacious
because in them Christ himself is at work: it is he who baptize, he who acts in his sacraments in
order to communicate the grace that each sacrament signifies. The father always hears the prayer
of His Son’s Church which, in the epiclesis of each sacrament, expresses her faith in the power of
the Spirit. As fire transforms everything it touches, so as the Holy Spirit transforms into the divine
life whatever is subjected to his power. (1127 p 271/ Council of Trent (1547) DS 1605; DS 1601)
HOLY IMAGES
1159
The sacred image, the liturgical icon, principally represents Christ. It cannot represent the invisible
and incomprehensible God, but the incarnation of the Son of God has ushered in a new “economy
of images”. (1159 p 280)
Previously God, who has neither a body nor a face, absolutely could not be represented by an
image. But now that he has made himself visible in the flesh and has lived with men, I can make
an image of what I have seen of God… and contemplate the glory of the Lord, his face unveiled.”
(St John Damascene, De imag.1,16; PG 96:1245 - 1248)
1192
Sacred images in our churches and homes are intended to awaken and nourish our faith in the
mystery of Christ. Through the icon of Christ and his works of salvation it is he whom we adore.
152
Through sacred images of the holy Mother of God, of the angels and of the saints, we venerate the
persons represented. (1192 p 287)
BAPTISM
1213
Holy Baptism is the basis of the whole Christian life, the gateway to life in the Spirit, and the door
which gives accesses to other sacraments. Through baptism we are freed from sin and reborn as
sons of God; we become members of Christ, are incorporated into the church and made sharers in
her mission: “Baptism is the sacrament of regeneration through water in the word. (1213 p
293/Roman Catechism II,2,5,c.f. Council of Florence: DS 1314; CIC, cann. 2041; 849; CCEO,
can, 6751)
1250
Born with a fallen human nature and tainted by original sin, children also have need of new birth
in baptism to be freed from the power of darkness and brought into the realm of the freedom of the
children of God, to which all men are called. The sheer gratuitousness of the grace of salvation is
particularly manifest in infant baptism. (1250 p 300/ Council of Trent (1546) DS 1514 cf. Col
1.12-14)
NECESSITY OF BAPTISM
1257
The Lord himself affirms that baptism is necessary for salvation. He also commands his disciples
to proclaim the gospel to all nations and to baptize them. Baptism is necessary for salvation for
those to whom the gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the possibility of asking for this
sacrament. The Church does not know of any means other than Baptism that assures entry into
eternal beatitude; this is why she takes care not to neglect the mission she has received from the
Lord to see all who can baptized are “ reborn of water and spirit”. God has bound salvation to the
sacrament of baptism, but he himself is not bound by his sacraments. (1257 p 301/ cf. Jn 3.5, Mt
28:19-20; Council of Trent (1547) DS 1618; LG14; AG5; Mk 16:16)
Grace of Baptism, for the forgiveness of sins
1263
By Baptism all sins are forgiven, original sin and all personal sins, as well as all punishment for
sin. In those who have been reborn nothing, neither Adam’s sin, nor personal sin, nor the
consequences of sin, the gravest of which is separation from God. (1263 p 302, Council of
Florence (1439)); DS 1316
EUCHARIST
1367
The Sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Eucharist are one single sacrifice: “the victim is
one and the same; the same now offers through the ministry of priests, who then offered himself
on the cross; only the manner of offering is different.” In this divine sacrifice which is celebrated
in the Mass, the same Christ who offered himself once in as bloody manner on the altar of the
cross is contained and is offered in an unbloody manner. (1367 p 323, Council of Trent (1562);
DS 1743 cf. Heb 9.14, 27)
1375
It is by the conversion of the bread and wine into Christ’s body and blood that Christ becomes
present in this sacrament. The Church Fathers strongly affirmed the faith of the church in
efficacy of the word of Christ and the action of the Holy Spirit to bring about this conversion.
(1375 p 325, St, John Chrysostom, Prod, Jud, 1.6; PG 49, 380 St. Ambrose, De myst . 9, 50:52:
pL 16, 405 - 407
PENANCE
1486
The forgiveness of sins committed after baptism is conferred by particular sacrament called the
sacrament of conversion, confession, penance or reconciliation. (1486 p 350)
AUTHORITY TO FORGIVE
1495
Only priests who have received the faculty of absolving from the authority of the Church can
forgive sins in the name of Christ. (1495 p 351)
153
EFFECT OF THE SACRAMENT OF PENANCE
1496
The spiritual effects are:
reconciliation with God by which the penitent recovers
remission of the eternal punishment incurred by mortal sins
remission, at least in part, of temporal punishments resulting from sin.
(1496 p 351)
ANOINTING OF THE SICK
1532
The special grace has its effects:
the forgiveness of sins, if not able through the sacrament of Penance
the restoration of health, if it is conducive to the salvation of his soul
the preparation for passing over to eternal life (1532 p 358)
HOLY ORDERS
1592
The ministerial priesthood differs in essence from the common priesthood of the faithful because it
confers a sacred power for the service of the faithful. The ordained ministers exercise their service
to the people of God by teaching (munus docendi), divine worship (munus liturgicum) and
pastoral governance (munus regendi). (1592 p 373)
FUNERALS
1689
The Eucharistic Sacrifice when the celebration takes place in the church, the Eucharist is the heart
of the Paschal reality of Christian death. In the Eucharist, the church expresses her efficacious
communion with the departed: offering to the Father in the Holy Spirit the sacrifice of the death
and resurrection of Christ, she asks to purify his child of his sins and their consequences, and to
admit him to the Paschal fullness of the table of the kingdom… (1689 p 393, cf OCF 57)
GOD’S SALVATION: LAW & GRACE
1949
Called to beatitude but wounded by sin, man stands in need of salvation from God. Divines help
comes to him in Christ through the law that guides him and grace that sustains him: Work out
your own salvation with fear and trembling; for God is at work in you, both to will and to work
for his good pleasure. (1949 p 447, Phil 2.12-13)
THE NEW LAW OR THE LAW OF THE GOSPEL
1980
The old Law is the first stage of revealed law. Its moral prescriptions are summed up in the Ten
Commandments.
(1980 p 453)
1984
The Law of the Gospel fulfills and surpasses the Old Law and brings it to perfection: its
promises, through the Beatitudes of the kingdom of heaven; its commandments, by reforming the
heart, the root of human acts. (1984 p 454)
GRACE AND JUSTIFICATION
1987
The grace of the Holy Spirit has the power to justify us, that is, to cleanse us from our sins and to
communicate to us “the righteousness of God through faith in Jesus Christ” and through Baptism.
(1987 p 454, Rom 3.22 cf. 6.3-4)
1991
Justification is at the same time the acceptance of God’s righteousness through faith in Jesus
Christ. Righteousness (or “justice”) here means the rectitude of divine love. With justification,
faith, hope and charity are poured into our hearts, and obedience to the divine will is granted us.
(1991 p 455)
1992
Justification has been merited for us by the Passion of Christ who offered Himself on the cross as
a living victim, holy and pleasing to God, and whose blood has become the instrument of
atonement for the sins of all men. Justification is conferred in Baptism, the sacrament of faith. It
conforms us to the righteousness of God, who makes us inwardly just by the power of his mercy.
154
Its purpose is the glory of God and of Christ, and the gift of eternal life. (1992 p 455, Council of
Trent (1547): DS 1529, Rom 3.21-26)
2019
Justification includes remission of sins, sanctification and the renewal of the inner man.
(2019 p 461)
THE CHURCH, MOTHER AND TEACHER
2030
It is the Church, in communion with all the baptized, that the Christian fulfills his vocation. From
the church he receives the word of God containing the teachings of the Law of Christ. From the
church he receives the grace of the sacraments that sustains him on the way. (2030A p 462 Gal
6.2)
2032
The Church, the pillar and bulwark of truth, has received this solemn command of Christ from the
apostles to announce the saving truth. To the Church belongs the right always and everywhere to
announce moral principles, including those pertaining to the social order, and to make judgments
on any human affairs to the extent that they are required by the fundamental rights of the human
person or salvation of souls. (2032 p 462, 1Tim 3.15, LG 17, CIC Can 747 & 2)
2034
The Roman Pontiff and the bishops are “authentic teachers, that is, teachers endowed with the
authority of Christ, who preach the faith to the people entrusted to them the faith to be believed
and put into practice. The ordinary and universal Magisterium of the Pope and the bishops in
communion with him teaches the faithful the truth to believe, the charity to practice, the beatitude
to hope for. (2034 p 463, LG25)
INFALLIBILITY
2035
The supreme degree of participation in the authority of Christ is ensured by the charism of
infallibility. This infallibility extends as far does of doctrine, including morals, without which the
saving truths of the faith cannot be preserved, explained or believed. (2035 p 463, cf. LG; CDF
decl. Mysterium Ecclesiae 3)
CENTRAL MESSAGE:
THE TEN COMMANDMENTS Ex 20.2-17 Deut 5.6-21
Traditional Catechetical Formula
1. I Am the LORD your God: You shall not have strange Gods before Me.
2. You shall not take the name of the LORD your God in vain.
3. Remember to keep holy the Lord’s Day.
4. Honor your father and your mother.
5. You shall not kill.
6. You shall not commit adultery.
7. You shall not steal.
8. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.
9. You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife
10. You shall not covet your neighbor’s goods.
( pp 466 - 468)
NOT MAKE GRAVEN IMAGES
2129
The divine injunction included the prohibition of every representation of God by the hand of man.
Deuteronomy explains: “Since you saw no form on the day that the LORD spoke to you at Horeb
out of the midst of fire, beware lest you act corruptly by making a graven image for yourselves, in
the form of any figure…” It is the absolutely transcendent God who revealed himself to Israel. He
is the all, but at the same time He is greater than all His works. He is the author of beauty. (2129 p
486 Deut 4.15-16, Sir 43.27-28)
155
JUSTIFICATION OF MAKING GRAVEN IMAGES
2130
Nevertheless, already in the Old Testament, God ordained or permitted the making of images that
pointed toward salvation by the Incarnate Word: so it was with the bronze serpent, the Ark of the
Covenant and the cherubim. (2130 p 486, cf. Num 21.4-9, Wis 16.5-14 Jn 3.14-15 Ex 25.10-22
1Kngs 6.23-28, 7.23-26)
2131
Basing itself on the mystery of the incarnate word the seventh ecumenical council at Nicea (787)
justified against the iconoclasts the veneration of icons- of Christ, but also of the Mother of God,
the angels, and all the saints. By becoming incarnate, the Son of God introduced a new “economy”
of images.
(2131 p 487)
2131
The christian veneration of images is not contrary to the First Commandment which proscribe
idols.
Indeed, the honor rendered to an image passes to its prototype, and whoever venerates an image
venerates the person portrayed in it. The honor paid to sacred images is a respectful veneration,
not the adoration due to God alone: but tends toward that whose image it is.
(2131 p 487, St. Basil, De Spiritu Santo 18,45: PG 32, 149C; Council of Nicea II: DS 601; cf.
Council of Trent: DS 1821 -1825 : Vatican Council I: SC 126; LG 67; St Tomas Aquinas, STh 11
-11, 81, 3 ad 3)
PRAYER
2564
Christian prayer is a covenant relationship between God and man in Christ. It is the action of God
and man, springing forth from both the Holy Spirit and ourselves, wholly directed to the Father, in
union with the human will of the Son of God made man. (2564 p 572)
IN COMMUNION WITH THE HOLY MOTHER OF GOD
2674
Mary gave her consent in faith at the Annunciation and maintained it without hesitation at the foot
of the Cross. Ever since, her motherhood has extended to the brothers and sisters of her Son “who
still journey on earth surrounded by dangers and difficulties. Jesus the only mediator, is the way of
our prayer; Mary, his mother and ours, is wholly transparent to him; she “shows the way”
(hodigitria), and is herself “the Sign” of the way, according to traditional iconography of East &
West. (2674 p 595, LG 62)
2682
Because of Mary’s singular cooperation with the action of the Holy Spirit, the Church loves to
pray in communion with Virgin Mary, to magnify, with her the great things the Lord has done for
her and to entrust supplications and praises to her. (2682 p 597)
History and Development of the Papacy
The preeminence of the bishop of Rome over the entire Catholic church, an institution
known as "the papacy," took centuries to develop.
In the first few hundred years of the church, the term "pope," which means “father,” was
used for any important and respected bishop, and the bishop of Rome was one of several
important bishops in Christendom.
Rome had always been honored for her association with Peter and Paul and her position
as the church in the Empire's capital, but especially after Christianity was legalized under
156
Emperor Constantine, the special status of that office grew even more with each passing
Roman bishop.
The doctrine of the supremacy of the pope finally reached its height in the late 13th
century, when Pope Boniface VIII claimed full religious and secular authority over every
human being.
The article that follows traces the gradual rise of the papacy from Saint Peter in the first
century to Pope Boniface VIII in the thirteenth.
Saint Peter's Keys
Most of the claims for the authority of the pope have rested on one basic
argument:
1.
2.
The bishop of Rome is the successor of St. Peter; and
Jesus gave St. Peter authority over the entire church.
The second claim is based on a passage in Matthew 16. In this passage, Jesus asks his
disciples who they think he is. Peter answers, "You are the Christ, the Son of the Living
God." Jesus replies:
"Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by man, but by my Father in
heaven. And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades
will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be
bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven."
Because the word "Peter" means "rock," the Catholic Church has long interpreted Jesus
to be teaching that Peter is the foundation of the Church and that Peter has spiritual
authority over it. (Protestants argue that "this rock" refers not to Peter but to his
confession of faith.) The Matthew 16 passage is also the basis for the imagery of St. Peter
guarding the gates of heaven.
Additional biblical support for the primacy of Peter over the church has been found in the
Gospel of John, in which the resurrected Jesus commands Peter: "Feed my sheep."
Bishops in the Early Church
In the early history of Christianity, five cities emerged as important
centers of Christianity: Rome, Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and
Constantinople. Although the Roman church was always highly
respected, the churches in the East generally had more numbers and
more authority than those of the West.
After the Edict of Milan granted Christianity legal status, the church
adopted the same governmental structure as the Empire: geographical provinces ruled by
bishops. This bishops of important cities therefore rose in power.
157
Rome was not the only city that could claim a special role in Christ's Church. Jerusalem
had the prestige of being the city of Christ's death and resurrection, and an important
church council was held there in the first century. Antioch was the place where Jesus'
followers were first called "Christians" and, with Alexandria, was an important early
center of Christian thought. Constantinople became highly important after Constantine
moved his capital there in 330 AD.
By the fifth century, however, the bishop of Rome began to claim his supremacy over all
other bishops, and some church fathers also made this claim for him.
Why Rome?
The primary theological reason for the eventual primacy of Rome is the city's association
with Peter. Tradition held that Peter visited Rome during his lifetime and, more
importantly, was martyred there (his remains are believed to reside beneath St. Peter's
Basilica in Vatican City). St. Paul was believed to have been martyred in Rome as well.
But there were political reasons for the upsurge in the pope's authority as well. First,
Rome was the historical capital of the empire and an important city politically, so it was
natural that the bishop of that city would also be important. And when Constantine
moved the capital of the empire to Constantinople in 330, the pope was the most
powerful figure that remained in Rome.
Also influential were the barbarian invasions of the fifth century. Leo I, who is regarded
by many as the first pope in the modern sense, was instrumental in persuading Attila the
Hun not to attack Rome in 452. When the city finally fell to the Vandals in 455, Leo
convinced their leader not to burn the city. These accomplishments added to the prestige
to the bishop of Rome.
Moreover, when Rome fell to the barbarians in 455 AD, the church became the defender
of order, justice, and what was left of ancient civilization. The Roman bishop was
instrumental in regaining the unity and stability that had been shattered by the invasions.
In the East, on the other hand, the empire survived for another 1000 years, so the bishops
there did not have the same opportunity for political importance as their Roman
counterpart.
Another important development for Rome came in 756, when Pepin the Short (Charles
Martel’s son and the father of Charlemagne) donated land to the Roman church. This
"Donation of Pepin" established an alliance between the pope and the rulers of the future
Holy Roman Empire. This important alliance culminated with Pope Leo III's crowning of
Charlemagne as emperor on Christmas Day, 800 AD.
A final factor that must not be overlooked in analyzing the rise of the papacy is the
personalities who held the office of bishop of Rome. These men - some of which were
worldly, some of which were very devout - regarded themselves as holding a special
place in Christendom and did not hesitate to claim this supremacy.
158
Damasus I (366-384)
An important early figure in the rise of the papacy is Damasus I. A Spaniard, Damasus
came to the chair of Rome amid great scandal. He was elected in October 366, but an
Arian group wished to see Ursinus as bishop instead. In 367, the Emperor Valentinian
recognized Damasus and banished Ursinus from Rome.
During his reign as bishop of Rome, Damasus contended against the heresies of
Apollinarianism and Arianism, presiding over two Roman synods in 368 and 369 and
sending his legates to the important Council of Constantinople in 381, all of which
condemned these and other heresies. He also commissioned the Latin Vulgate translation
of the Bible, which became the standard translation used by the church throughout the
Middle Ages, and built a marble monument in honor of Peter and Paul.
Damasus was the first to declare himself the “Apostolic See.” St. Jerome, Damasus'
secretary and the translator of the Vulgate, clearly agreed with this designation. The
church father wrote in a letter to Damasus:
As I follow no leader save Christ, so I communicate with none save your Beatitude, that
is, with the chair of Peter. For this, I know, is the Rock on which the Church is built. This
is Noah's ark, and he who is not found in it shall perish when the flood overwhelms all. ...
In 381, during Damasus' reign, the Council of Constantinople granted the bishop of
Constantinople "primacy of honor next after the Bishop of Rome."
Siricius (384-399)
Siricius was the first to apply the term "pope" to himself and the first to issue a formal
decretal - a ruling with binding legal precedent - on disputes in the Church. It remains
the Catholic view today that "in all his decrees the pope speaks with the consciousness of
his supreme ecclesiastical authority and of his pastoral care over all the churches."
Innocent I (402-416)
During Innocent's pontificate, the Emperor Honorius moved the capital of the Western
Empire from Rome to Ravenna, in northwest Italy, in 402. Rome was no longer a strong
political center, and it would not regain its political strength until the rise of the papal
states in the 8th century. Taking advantage of this weakness and the absence of a strong
emperor, Alaric and the Visigoths sacked Rome in 410. As would not be the case later,
the pope was powerless to stop the barbarian invasion.
However, Innocent did advance the idea of the supremacy of the pope further by
introducing the concept of "primacy of jurisdiction.” Replying to African bishops who
had appealed to the pope to support them against Pelagianism, Innocent wrote:
159
...nothing which was done even in the most remote and distant provinces should be taken
as finally settled unless it came to the notice of this See, that any just pronouncement
might be confirmed by all the authority of this See, and that the other churches might
from thence gather what they should teach.
Pope Leo the Great (440-461)
Leo I has been called "the master builder of the papacy." He is considered by many to be
the first pope in the modern sense of the term, for he put the idea of primacy of
jurisdiction fully into practice. Leo was ideal for the task; by all accounts he was a good
man, highly disciplined, and a true Christian.
Leo took the title pontifex maximus, "chief priest," which had been used by the Roman
emperors in reference to the state cult. In his writings appeared all the traditional
arguments for papal authority, including the idea that Jesus had made Peter and his
successors the rock on which the church would be built, and that the bishop of Rome is
the successor of Peter.
Several important events for the development of the papacy occurred during Pope Leo's
reign. In 445, Emperor Valentinian said the Bishop of Rome was the law for all. In 451,
Pope Leo convened the important Council of Chalcedon although that job had
traditionally been reserved for emperors.
But most important of all, Pope Leo was instrumental in saving Rome from Attila the
Hun. In 452, the Huns had taken a nearby Italian city, the road to Rome was open to
them, the Western emperor was weak in character and resources, and the East gave no
indications it would help. It seemed certain the Huns would sack Rome, but Leo left
Rome and marched to meet Attila himself. We do not know what was said between the
two men – legend has it that Attila saw Saints Peter and Paul marching with Leo and
threatening the barbarian. In any case, Attila decided not to attack Rome. He turned to the
north instead, and died shortly thereafter.
Three years later, Pope Leo saved Rome from the Vandals. This time couldn’t stop them
from invading, but he led negotiations with the Vandal leader and prevented the burning
of the city.
Gelasius I (492-96)
Pope Gelasius was the first to take the title "vicar of Christ." He taught a dualistic power
structure in which the pope held ultimate spiritual authority while the emperor held
temporal authority.
160
Gregory the Great (inaugurated 590)
Gregory the Great, who is widely regarded as one of the best popes in history, fought
with all his might to avoid being elected to that office. Gregory was a monk, an abbot of
St. Andrew's, and he loved the monastic life. But in 590, in a time of disastrous flooding
and rampant disease, Pope Pelagius II died, and Gregory was unanimously elected to take
his place.
Gregory begged those that had chosen him to be relieved of the election and wrote to the
Emperor personally to plead that the rule not confirm the election. But the letter was
intercepted and six months later Gregory received word that the Emperor had confirmed
his election. The abbot contemplated flight, but he was forcibly brought to St. Peter's
Basilica and consecrated pope on September 3, 590.
Despite his reluctance for the job (which never abated throughout his reign), Gregory
threw himself into his appointed role and became only the second pope to receive the
appellation "the Great." Pope Gregory the Great organized the distribution of food to the
needy, oversaw the rebuilding of aqueducts, and negotiated peace with the barbarian
Lombards.
In his theology, Gregory was heavily influenced by St. Augustine. The pope elaborated
and developed Augustinian ideas such as purgatory and the just war.
The Donation of Constantine
The so-called "Donation of Constatine" was a document that claimed Constantine said on
his deathbed: “I give my lands and authority to the bishop in Rome.”
It was made public in the eighth century, but was later proven to be inauthentic and
dating from after Pope Gregory by the textual criticism of Valla.
Period of Instability
The ninth and tenth centuries saw a major decline in the power and stability of the
papacy. Some unfortunate signs of the times included:




The reign of Pope Nicholas I (858-867) was called a “pornarchy”
In the 58 years between 897 and 955, there were 17 popes
Simony was rampant – men were buying ecclesiastical positions (and were rarely qualified to hold
them)
Nicolaitanism (Rev 2:6, 14, 15) – breach of clerical celibacy – was common. Some married, but
most just took concubines.
The period of instability and corruption began to wane due to a revival at Cluny in 910.
Although it was a reform movement within monasticism, it affected whole church
positively.
161
Gregory VII/Hildebrand (1073-1085)
The pontificate of Gregory VII began a movement towards the peak of the papacy.
Gregory made many uncontested decisions and demanded that all priests be celibate. He
was also involved in the famous investiture struggle with Henry IV that ended with
Henry standing barefoot in the snow at Canossa for three days until he was forgiven by
the pope.
Innocent III (1198-1216)
The rule of Pope Innocent III represents the zenith of papal power. At his inauguration,
Innocent quoted Jeremiah 1:10 in reference to himself: “See, today I appoint you over
nations…” He also taught that the Pope stands between God and man as a mediator and
vicar of Christ.
It was on Innocent's watch that the Fourth Lateran Council developed the doctrine of
transubstantiation. The Pope also showed his political power on several occasions: he
caused King Philip II to take back his queen because he had unjustly divorced her; he
caused another king to get a divorce because his wife was too closely related to him; and
King Peter of Aragon received his kingdom as a fief from the pope.
Boniface VIII (1294-1303)
Contemporaries said of Pope Boniface that he “crept in like a fox, reigned like a lion, and
died like a dog.” Today, his Catholic Encyclopedia article admits, "Though certainly one
of the most remarkable pontiffs that have ever occupied the papal throne, Boniface VIII
was also one of the most unfortunate. His pontificate marks in history the decline of the
medieval power and glory of the papacy."
Pope Boniface's reign was characterized by pomp and circumstance from the very first:
The ceremony of his consecration and coronation was performed at Rome, 23 January, 1295, amid scenes
of unparalleled splendour and magnificence. King Charles II of Naples and his son Charles Martel, titular
king and claimant of Hungary, held the reins of his gorgeously accoutred snow-white palfrey as he
proceeded on his way to St. John Lateran, and later, with their crowns upon their heads, served the pope
with the first few dishes at table before taking their places amongst the cardinals.
During his pontificate, Boniface was known to wear imperial robes and a richly jeweled
crown, and cry, “I am Caesar. I am emperor.” Pope Boniface made even higher claims
than Innocent but could not support them. He taught that the pope held both the temporal
and spiritual swords, meaning that he is the ultimate authority in both realms.
In his capacity of spiritual leader, Pope Boniface instituted the first Holy Year with the
Jubilee of 1300: he announced a “full and copious pardon of all their sins” for all who
reverently visited the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul in that year. The papacy made a
great deal of money from the pilgrims who poured into Rome as a result. In 1301,
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tradition holds that he was visited by the great poet Dante, but this is doubted by some
scholars. The Pope's story is included in Dante's Purgatorio. Boniface also oversaw a
great deal of restoration of churches, revived the Vatican Library and was apparently a
great lover of the arts.
Boniface was not as successful in the temporal realm. His attempts to resolve conflicts in
Naples, Venice, Genoa and Tuscany were failures. In 1296 Boniface issued Clericis
laicos, which threatened excommunicated for anyone who taxed clergy, but both Philip
of France and Edward I of England wanted to tax the clergy to finance their military
campaigns so Philip put an embargo on export of jewels from his domain. This deprived
the pope of much of his revenue, so Boniface backed down, saying an exception to the
non-taxation rule was for “defense” in “dire need”
After another run-in in 1301, Philip's minister said Philip's sword was made of steel but
the pope's was made only of words. A few months later, Boniface issued the unam
sanctam, declaring that every human being is subject to Roman pope.
Undeterred, King Philip prepared to depose Boniface on grounds of illegal election,
heresy, simony and immorality. Several Roman churches had called for this in 1297 as
well. Boniface was 86 and summering in foothills of Apennine Mountains at Anagni, his
birthplace, Philip's troops broke into the aged pope's bedroom and kept him prisoner for
three days. The people of Anagni rescued him and he was escorted back to Rome, but
Boniface died within a few weeks of the ordeal. He was buried in a marble tomb in St.
Peter's Basilica. The ignoble end to Boniface's reign is significant: it "marks the first open
rejection of papal spiritual dominance by the rising national monarchies of the West."
“Religions and Belief Systems”. Religion Facts. 3February2014< http://www.religionfacts.com/>.
163
In Acts 11:26 the disciples were first called Christians. During the time of the
apostles and the early Christians there were no statues or idols made or introduced to
represent God, Jesus, Mary and the saints. It gradually crept into the church when it was
made a state religion in Rome by Emperor Constantine. Roman Catholicism was a result of
the mixture of Christianity and paganism at the time of Constantine around 300 AD
onwards. Many new teachings came in that were not scripturally sound. Teachings of
purification in purgatory, worshiping images , praying the rosary, praying to the saints,
praying for the dead, indulgences, revision of the Ten Commandments (not to make idols
were deleted which is commandment number two), traditions came in, papacy introduced,
forgiveness of sins through the priests, salvation only through the church, the sacraments
and keeping the Ten Commandments.
The gospel (good news) that Christ died for our sins and resurrected for our
salvation and redemption and that whosoever believe in Him shall not perish but have
eternal life (Luke 24:44-47 John 3:16, 3:36) has been the belief of the early Christians and
also today all over the world. Christians differ from Roman Catholicism in many major
ways. Christianity is based on a personal relationship with God through Jesus Christ His
Son. They don’t worship God through images, don’t pray to the saints, and don’t pray for
the dead. The major doctrine they hold is that eternal life and salvation can be experienced
now through repentance and faith in the Lord Jesus Christ after hearing the good news
about Him. Forgiveness is through the shed blood of Christ on the cross.
Roman Catholicism does not teach that salvation and eternal life is received now.
The church does not believe it can only be receive by repentance and faith in Christ alone.
Salvation is through good works, through the sacraments, keeping the commandments.
Their souls should be purified at purgatory at death before going to heaven. This doctrine
contradicts the finished work of our Lord Jesus Christ. By His crucifixion and death on the
cross and the offering of His body purified us and by His resurrection we were justified.
The repentant believers need not any of the works or rituals.
Roman Catholics today are open to the saving knowledge about Christ and about
the kingdom of God. They are open to the bible and the word of God. What is needed is
someone has to share them the gospel. They already believe Jesus as God. They have to
understand that Jesus already finished the work of salvation on the cross, that He was
crucified, died and resurrected for the forgiveness of our sins and redemption of our souls.
What they are experiencing is a historical Jesus. They are experiencing only head
knowledge of Christ. Relationship only happens when they repent from heir sins and truly
trust Jesus Christ and receive Him as their Lord and Savior.
They should hear and believe the gospel.
Paul said, “I am not ashamed of the gospel of God, for it is the power of
God for salvation to everyone who believes”
Romans 1:16
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SUMMARY, DEEP ANALYSIS AND INSIGHTS TO ALL
THE RELIGIONS MAN KNEW TODAY
Man was really created by God not as an independent being but a person with soul
and heart. It is innate in him to know God. Through his inner spirit and deep soul he
gropes and looks for the Divine and Creator whom we call God.
Studying all the religions that we have listed, there are few things that I found
common among them and realized something different.
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some men saw that the world was evil, there were sufferings around him and to
give solace to his spirit he tries to find peace within himself and those around him
by virtuous deeds, goodness, good thoughts, good words etc.
these men began to teach many of their noble thoughts and goodness, they wrote
their teachings
others find solace by separation from worldly desires and passion
others find communion with nature and self
others think that there is no god but there is a force out there why all these are
happening
their followers later deified or made their founders as god and worshipped them
which in the beginning was not even thought of by these men
others because of fear try to offer sacrifices to spirits and worships their ancestors
others just worship anything, believe anything
another wrote the revelations from spirits such as a certain angel gabriel but
contradicting the original revelation of the original angel Gabriel about Christ and
earlier Scriptures
introduced a new god and a new book and claimed that the same god introduced is
also the God of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Moses,
that their book is the only book left uncorrupted,
this book denied the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, His being the Son of
God, Lord and Savior which the earlier Books confirmed and boldly declare.
one religion believe its roots from Christianity but as hundreds of years passed by
new doctrines, teachings, traditions, beliefs, rituals and idolatry came into the
church.
It became a mixture of paganism (idolatry) and Christianity.
Difference of Christianity:
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There are many things we can find in the course of these studies that make
Christianity and the God whom we love and worship different.
YAHWEH created and revealed Himself to Adam and Eve, the first man and
woman
It was God who searched for man.
He talked and appeared to Noah
He made a covenant with Abraham
165
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He appeared to Moses and gave the Ten Commandments
He directly called, talked and sent His prophets
They proclaimed and wrote His words in progressive revelation
He declared the past and the future
He is the God of all mankind, the dead and the living
He sent His Son to the world and spoke the truth
In these last day He has spoken to us through His Son Jesus Christ
One thing that is outstanding and amazing. No religious founder made the following
claims and proved it as Jesus Christ did:
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HE IS THE SON OF GOD
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SIN WAS NOT FOUND NOR LIE IN HIS MOUTH
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HE CAME DOWN FROM HEAVEN FROM GOD HIS FATHER
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HE IS THE LIFE AND SAVIOR OF THE WORLD
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HE THAT BELIEVES HIM AND HIS WORDS SHALL NOT DIE AND PERISH
IN HELL BUT HAVE ETERNAL LIFE
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HE PREDICTED HIS DEATH AND RESURRECTED
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AND HE IS ALIVE NOW SITED AT THE RIGHT HAND OF GOD THE
FATHER IN HEAVEN
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HE IS WITH THOSE WHO PREACH THE GOSPEL AND HIS PEOPLE AND
UNTIL NOW HE HEALS THE SICK, HE FORGIVES SINS, HE GIVES PEACE
AND LIFE TO ALL WHO SHALL BELIEVE HIS NAME AND HIS SAME
WORDS 2,OOO YEARS AGO….

JESUS HAS ONLY ONE MESSAGE FOR THE WORLD AND THAT IS THE
COMMANDMENT OF HIS FATHER: GIVE ETERNAL LIFE TO ALL WHO
SHALL REPENT AND BELIEVE, ACCEPT HIM AND HIS WORDS.
166
The CULTS & The OCCULTS
167
CHURCH OF JESUS CHRIST
OF LATTER-DAY SAINTS
(Mormons)
GOD
Eternal Father
Father, Son, Holy Spirit one God
Father has a body of flesh and bones
Created all things spiritually before naturally
Moroni 4.4, 5.2, 10.4, 31
D&C 20.77, 79
Alma 11.44 3 Neph 11.27
Mormon 7.7
D&C 20.28 A Faith 1
Ether 3.15-16 Moses 6.9
D&C 130.22
Moses 3.5,7
JESUS CHRIST
Son of the Eternal Father
Father of heaven and earth
The Eternal Father
Father because conceived by the power of God
Father & Son
God & Christ seen
Appearance to John 14.23 is personal
Appeared to Nephi, his people, chose twelve
gave a doctrine
1 Neph 10.17, 11.7, 21
Mosiah 3.8, 15.4, 16.15
Alma 11.38-39 Ether 4.7
Alma 11.38-39 Mosiah 15.1-5 Helaman
16.18
Mosiah 15.3
Ether 3.14 Mormon 9.12
D& C 93.3-4
Ether 3.13-16
D & C 76.23, 110.2-10, 137.3
D&C 130.3
3 Neph 11.1-2, 7-10, 12.1, 20
3 Neph 11.25-31, 37-41, 21.6
HOLY SPIRIT
Personage of Spirit
D&C 130.22
SIN
Adam fell; man might have joy, redeemed by Messiah
according to the commandments of God
2 Neph 2.25-26 Moses 5.10-11
MAN
Created in the image of God, has body
Was a spirit before made man
Ether 3.15-16
Moses 3.5,7
Eternal/ Endless Punishment
D&C 19.11-12
HELL
SCRIPTURES
Doctrine of Christ only true doctrine of the Father,
Son, Holy Spirit
The Bible not only the revealed, written Word
Books of Authority:
168
2 Neph 31.21
2 Neph 29.3, 7-8, 10
2 Neph 32.3-6, 33.1-2, 5, 10-11 Jacob 1.6,
4.4
Book of Mormon, Doctrine & Covenants,
Alma 6.8 3Neph 28.33
Pearl of Great Price
Book of Mormon is the most correct book of any book on earth; keystone of our religion, man gets
nearer to God by abiding by its precepts.
FOUNDER
Joseph Smith received revelations from
an angel Moroni at Manchester, New York on
September 21, 1823 and onwards. (Introduction, par 6, Book of Mormon)
SATAN
Similitude (image, semblance or likeness) of the only begotten Moses 1.16
WORLDS
Celestial World
where God’s throne is
where Mormons go
be like gods
Terestial World
for good men not Mormons
Telestial World
for evil, wicked men, Hell
D&C 137.1
D&C 76.50-70
D&C 76.58, 121.28, 32,132.20, 37
D&C 76.71-80, 98-101
D&C 76.81-84, 103-106
SALVATION
Atonement of Christ
by obedience to the Laws & ordinances of the gospel all mankind may
be saved
Articles of Faith 3
Forsake sins and obey commandments
D&C 93.1 Mosiah 2.41
Alma 38.1, 12.30,32
By the church
D&C 76.50-54, 94, 84.88
Receive the servants
Neph 26.20-22
D&C 99.1-4, 76.50-52
Without Order of Priesthood no one will see God
D&C 84.14-22,27
through repentance, baptism by water and
the doctrine of Christ in the book
2 Nep 31.17-21
GOSPEL
Central Message:
First principles and ordinances of the gospel are:
Faith on the Lord Jesus Christ
Repentance
Baptism for remission of sins
Laying of hands for gifts of the Holy Spirit ( A of Faith 4 & 3)
Gospel of repentance, baptism, remission of sins, and
the law of carnal commandments
D&C 84.26-27, 76.50-52
This is my gospel teaching peaceable things of the kingdom
D&C 39.5-6
Churches deny the more parts of the gospel
4 Neph 1.27
Fullness of the gospel contained in the Book of Mormon
J Smith-H 1.34
Eternal life, know true God & Jesus Christ, receive
Law D&C 132.24, 21, 27
Ask the Father in Christ Name if the Book (of Mormon) is true
the Holy Spirit reveals
Mormon 10.3-5
169
Jesus Christ is the Son of God, all come to him,
obey the laws and ordinances of the gospel may be saved
(Introduction par 5, Book of Mormon)
SIX STEPS (Study) in Membership
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
God, Jesus Christ, Joseph Smith, Book of Mormon
Gospel of Christ - repentance, baptism and the commandments
Restoration of the Church
Family and the Temple
To be perfect like Christ
To be a member of the church
THE ARTICLES OF FAITH
OF THE CHURCH OF JESUS CHRIST
OF LATTER-DAY SAINTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
We believe in God, the Eternal Father, and in His Son Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Ghost.
We believe that man will be punished for their sins, and not for Adam’s transgression.
We believe that through the atonement of Christ, all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws
and ordinances of the gospel.
We believe that the first principles and ordinances of the Gospel are:
First, Faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, second, Repentance, third, Baptism by immersion for the
remission of sins; fourth, Laying on of hands for the gift of the Holy Ghost.
We believe that a man must be called of God, by prophecy, and by the laying on of hands by those
who are in authority, to preach the gospel and administer in the ordinances thereof.
We believe in the same organization that existed in the Primitive Church, namely apostles, prophets,
pastors, teachers, evangelists and so forth.
We believe in the gift of tongues, prophecy, revelation, visions, healing, interpretation of tongues, and
so forth.
We believe the Bible to be the word of God as far it is translated correctly; we also believe the Book of
Mormon to be the word of God.
We believe all that God has revealed, all that He does now revealed, and we believe that He will yet
reveal many great and important things pertaining to the kingdom of God.
We believe in the literal gathering of Israel and in the restoration of the Ten Tribes; that Zion (the New
Jerusalem) will be built upon the American continent; that Christ will reign personally upon the earth;
and that the earth will be renewed and receive its paradisiacal glory.
We claim the privilege of worshipping the Almighty God according to the dictates of our own
conscience, and allow all men the same privilege, let them worship how, where, or what they may.
We believe in being subject to kings, presidents, rulers, magistrates, in obeying, honoring and
sustaining the law.
We believe in being honest, true, chaste, benevolent, virtuous and in doing good to all men; indeed, we
may say that we follow the admonition of Paul- We believe all things, we hope all things, we have
endured many things, and hope to be able to endure all things. If there is anything virtuous, lovely, or
of good report or praiseworthy, we seek after these things.
JOSEPH SMITH
170
Mormon teachings deviate from the truths that are in the Bible. They do not accept
the bible as the only inspired book of the Lord. They have the book of Mormon given by a
certain angel Moroni who claimed to have the fullness of the gospel. They have teachings
that are contrary to the original revelations.
Salvation they say is by the atonement of Christ but includes obedience to its laws
and ordinances and entry to their church. They believe that the Christian churches today
are not the true church of our Lord Jesus Christ. The true Church holds only to the Bible
for its final authority, faith and practice. The true church proclaims the only one gospel that
Jesus’ sacrificial offering is enough for man’s forgiveness and salvation. The requirement in
the Bible is true repentance and faith in Christ.
God warned not to add words or remove words from this prophecy for curse shall
come to them.
“I testify to everyone who hears the words of the prophecy of this book: if
anyone adds to them, God will add to him the plagues which are written in this
book; and if anyone takes away from the words of the book of this prophecy,
God will take away his part from the tree of life and from the holy city, which are
written in this book.”
Revelation 22:18-19
They get their teachings from the Doctrines and Covenants and from the Book of
Mormon which came from a spirit that carried a different gospel message from what God
has previously revealed and written. These books are not biblically sound and do not
conform to the gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ and to Bible truths. This is accursed in
Galatians 1:8-9, 1Cor 4:6, 2John 9.
171
JEHOVAH’S WITNESSES
GOD
God’s personal Name is Jehovah. ( The truth shall make you free., p.17)
Only Jehovah is from everlasting to everlasting. (Make sure of all things,
1965, p486)
Jesus Christ is not one God with the Father (MS p. 485)
Holy Spirit is God’s active force, not a person (MS p. 487)
There was a time when Jehovah was alone in universal space. All life, energy and thought were
contained in him alone.( Let God be true, 1952 p.25)
Elohim is the plural of majesty. It does not mean he is mysteriously a trinity. (New Heavens and
New Earth p 36)
The obvious conclusion is that Satan is the originator of the trinity doctrine. (LG p.101)
JESUS CHRIST
Not Jehovah God. He was the first son that Jehovah God brought forth. (LG p.32)
The first creation by God. (MS p. 282)
Jesus Christ had a pre-human existence (LG p.34)
Michael the archangel is no other that than the only-begotten Son of God,
now Jesus Christ (NH p. 38)
At baptism Jesus was anointed to become the Messiah, or Jesus the
Christ(Anointed) (LG p. 38)
He shows his subjection to God by humbling himself to a most disgraceful death on a torture
stake. (LG p.35)
God raised him as a mighty immortal spirit Son (LG p.40)
HOLY SPIRIT
The Holy Spirit is the invisible force of Almighty God, which moves his servants to do his, will.
(LG p.108)
SIN
Sin is falling short of God’s mark of perfection, transgression of his righteous law. (MS p 456)
At death, Adam was to return to dust, a return to non-existence (NH p88)
All are born in sin (imperfect, with wayward tendencies)(MS p 456)
MAN
The soul is not eternal or immortal.
Shall not suffer eternally in hell.
172
SALVATION
Jesus Christ laid down in sacrifice a perfect HUMAN LIFE, equal to that which Adam
forfeited (You may survive Armageddon p. 39).
His perfect human life with all its rights and prospects was laid down in death, but NOT
FOR SIN AND IN PUNISHMENT. (LG 116)
That which is redeemed or brought back is perfect human life with its rights and earthly
prospects. (LG p.114)
The value of the perfect human life was now available for use on behalf of faithful men. (LG .
116)
The Bible plainly shows that 144,000 will share heavenly glory, while others will enjoy blessings
of life here on earth. (LG p 298)
Faith in Jehovah God and Christ Jesus and do God’s will and faithfully carry out their dedication,
rewarded with everlasting life.
The righteous shall resurrect in the last day after sleeping in the grave.
HELL
There is no Hell. The Dead are inactive, unconscious. Destruction is annihilation. (LG p 99 MSP
143 LG p 270)
HISTORY
Founded by Charles Tze Russell (1852 - 1916) from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.
He couldn’t believe God can condemn a sinner in eternal fire, text were Jeremiah 7.31, 19.5, 32.35
1John 4.8,9
July 1879 Started the Publication of Zion’s Watch Tower & Herald of Christ’s Presence which is
known worldwide as the Watch Tower- Witnessing the Kingdom of Jehovah.
1888
Non-profit Bible Society- Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society now known Watch Tower
Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania.
1914
Prophesied Christ Second Coming an important event in man’s history.
Context is Christ coming is not seen. Mt 24.3-22 Lk 21.7-33
1920-1930 The Bible Students gave impetus to house to house preaching Act 20.20
1931
They bonded together to witness the Name of Jehovah and be called and known that way.
Is 43.10-12 Mt 28.19-20 Act 1.8
1935
Believed only 144,000 sealed Christians will rule with Christ in heaven and the
kingdom, heavenly rule will be for the rest of mankind in earth.
Rev 7.4, 9, 10, 14.1-3 Rom 8.16,17
Therefore their goal is a worldwide witness to this millions of people looking for God.
1942
Trained ministers in WatchTower Bible School of Gilead.
1946
Held weekly meetings of study of the bible in Kingdom Halls and from here it spread
though out the world.
CENTRAL MESSAGE:
Proclaim the coming of Jehovah on earth.
Witness the Name of Jehovah
Ps 37.9-11, 29
Rev 1.5, 3.14 IJn 4:14-16 Is 43.10-12
Mt 28.19,20 Act 1.8
There is only one religion
173
Here we have a deviation from the truth. They denied the deity of Christ as equal to
the Father. They have named God as Jehovah. This is not the Name revealed to Moses and
the prophets and the scriptures but it was YHWH/Yahweh. The death and resurrection of
Christ they taught was an example of perfect human life and not the sacrifice for sins. The
Bible teaches otherwise, Christ was sacrificed for sins once and for all.
“10By this will we have been sanctified through the offering of the
body of Jesus Christ once for all. 11Every priest stands daily ministering and
offering time after time the same sacrifices, which can never take away sins;
12but He, having offered one sacrifice for sins for all time, SAT DOWN AT
THE RIGHT HAND OF GOD,”
Heb 10:10-12
They do not believe the existence of Hell and everlasting consciousness of the wicked
in the Lake of Fire. The wicked dead don’t exist anymore according to them. The Bible says
otherwise and opposite they shall perish forever and the saints saved because of the sacrifice
of Christ for sin.
“And the sea gave up the dead which were in it, and death and Hades gave up
the dead which were in them; and they were judged, every one of them according
to their deeds. Then death and Hades were thrown into the lake of fire. This
is the second death, the lake of fire.”
Revelation 20:13-14
“But when the Son of Man comes in His glory, and all the angels with Him, then
He will sit on His glorious throne… Then He will also say to those on His left,
‘Depart from Me, accursed ones, into the eternal fire which has been prepared
for the devil and his angels;’… “These will go away into eternal punishment,
but the righteous into eternal life.”
Matthew 25:31, 41, 46
174
CHURCHOF CHRIST
(Iglesia ni Kristo)
PROPHECY
Apostasy of the First Century Church
Another flock to be gathered
From the Far East, ends of the earth (Philippines)
Ends of the earth (time before the end of age)
Messenger sent. Felix Manalo (1914)
from the ends of the earth
THE CHURCH
Christ built
Name of the church
He is the head
Purchased by his blood
Gave His life for it
The holy city, new jerusalem
He is the savior, no other name
Entrance through faith in :
God and Christ (man)
the gospel (doctrines)
messenger (Felix Manalo)
be baptized in their church
1Tim 4.1
Jn 10.16
Is 43.5-6, 41.9
Mt 24.3, 6-7
Is 41.9-10, 46.11 Rom 1.16
Mt 16.18
Rom 16.16
Col 1.18 Eph 1.22
Act 20.28 Eph 1.7
Jn 10.11 Eph 5.25
Rev 21.2
Act 4.12
Rom 5.2
Jn 14.1-2
Mk 16.15-16
Jn 6.29
Mt 28.19 Act 2.38 Mk 16.15-16
SALVATION
Central Message:
If anyone wants to be saved he must enter and be a member of the church
of christ.
Enter the sheepfold
Jn 10.7,9,1
Be a member of the body Eph 3.6, 5.29-30 1Cor 12.12-13
Christ is the savior of the body
Eph 5.23 1Cor 6.13
GOD
The Father is the only true God
God is a spirit
God cannot be man and man God
The Father is greater
Jn 17.3 1Cor 8.6 Eph 4.5 Is 43.10-12, 63.16
Mal 2.10
Jn 4.24
Hos 11.9 Num 23.19
Jn 10.29 1Cor 11.3
175
JESUS CHRIST
Jesus is not God, he said he is a man
Apostles taught it
Has flesh and blood
He died, God cannot die
Prayed to God the Father
He has a Father and God
Existed only as man
Authority came from God
Power from the spirit of God
Made holy only from God
Glorified by God and commanded to
worship
Made above all creation
But to be subjected to God
Made Lord, Savior and Mediator
HOLY SPIRIT
He is not God, only power or force
Sent by the Father and Son
Seven spirits sent by God
MAN’S DEATH
Into the grave
Sleeps
No knowledge
Raised in the last day
Soul also dies
Cleaves to the dust
Jn 8.40
Act 2.22 1Tim 2.5
Lk 24.37-40
Rom 5.6 Act 2.23
Mt 26.39
Jn 20.17
1 Jn 4.2
Mt 28.18 Act 2.36, 22 Jn 5.30
Act 10.38 Lk 10.21-22, 11.20
Mt 12.28
Jn 10.36 Mk 10.17-18
Phil 2.9-11
Eph 1.20-22
1Cor 15.27-28
Act 2.36, 5.31 1 Tim 2.5
Jn 14.26, 15.26
Rev 5.6
Ps 88.5, 146.4 Act 2.29,34
Jn 11.11-4 1Thess 4.14
Eccl 9.5,10 Job 7.9-10
Jb 14.10, 12 Jn 11.11-14, 5.28
1Thess 4.15-16 Dan 12.1-2
Ezek 18.4
Ps 119.25
HELL
Only at the judgment day
It is the lake of fire
Mt 13. 38-40, 16.27
Jn 12.48, 5.28-29
Rev 20.10-15
Eating blood is sin
Sin against the Holy Spirit
Cast out of the church
1Saml 14.32-33
Mt 12.31-32 Act 15.28-29
Lev 17.10
FOOD
JUDGMENT
On the coming of Christ
Wicked shall be gathered
No condemnation to those in Christ
which the church he built
The name is church of christ
Resurrected
Jde 1.14-15
2 Pet 3.7, 10
Rom 8.1
Mt 16.18
Rom 16.16
1 Thess 4.16-17
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after 1,000 years satan and the
wicked turned into the lake of fire
So each member should be in peace
inside the church of christ
stay until the end
Rev 20.5, 7-10
2 Pet 3.14
Col 3.15, 1.18
Mt 24.13
INDOCTRINATION
(For those who wants to be a member)
1. The word of God is written in the bible
2. The true God taught in the bible
3. Not all churches are of God
4. Christ’s commandments whoever wants to be saved must be a member of the church of christ
5. Why we’re born Catholics and not church of christ
6. Teachings Catholic turned away from
7. Christ built the church of christ in the Philippines through prophecy
8. Felix Manalo messenger of God in the last day
9. Why the church of Christ is persecuted and the reward of not falling
10. Right way of membership into the church of christ
11. The true nature of Christ according to the bible
12. The use of wrong texts and translations are the basis of those who teach that Christ is the true
God
13. Responsibility of the members of the church of christ to change life
14. Responsibility of the members to attend all church worship
15. God commanded offerings, thanksgiving and gifts
16. God commanded to love the brethren
17. God prohibited eating of blood and marriage to different faith
18. Be baptized to be a disciple of christ
19. All members should bring converts and pray
20. All members should be registered and under an administration
21. Judgment, resurrection of the dead and the inheritance of the church of christ
22. The foundation of unity of the church of Christ
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This group blatantly and boldly proclaims and teaches that Jesus is not God nor
does He possess divine nature. Jesus is a created Son of God and Lord. They stress Jesus as
man only. The Lord Jesus took the form of a man.
“Have this attitude in yourselves which was also in Christ Jesus, who,
although He existed in the form of God, did not regard equality with God a
thing to be grasped, but emptied Himself, taking the form of a bond-servant,
and being made in the likeness of men. Being found in appearance as a
man,…”
Philippians 2:5-8a
Never can they read from the Scriptures that Jesus is not God. They remove words
from the Scripture by simply not teaching them. They twist and don’t read the scriptures
that declare the Godhead of Jesus Christ. The Scriptures declare Jesus is God in nature
(John 1:1-3, 20:28-29, Philippians 2:5-11, Colosians 1:13-18, Titus 2:13, Hebrews 1:5-13, 1
John 5:20 Revelation 1:7-8).
They say they worship Jesus and call Him Lord because the Father has
commanded. What kind of worship and lordship do they attribute to Him— like God?
Jesus said, “so that all will honor the Son even as they honor the
Father who sent Him.”
John 5:23
Jesus asked the religious leaders of His time.
“If David then calls Him ‘Lord,’ how is He his son?”
Matthew 22:45
They believe that Christ died for the church and that church is the church of Christ.
He is the savior of the church so if you want to be saved you must be a member and enter
that church. They corrupt the Scripture. They make use of the name of the church—
church of Christ as the church Jesus built and whom He shall saved. So you should enter it
to be saved. They interpreted the scripture erroneously. Jesus said He is the door of the
sheep and that whoever enters in the door shall be saved and whoever enters in not by
through Him is a robber and a thief. It is in Jesus the head that we enter as the door by
faith in Him and not go directly into the church which is the body.
“I am the door; If anyone enters through Me, he will be saved,”
John 10:9
Faith therefore here is faith directed to Christ as Lord and Savior and it is He that
is received (John 3:16, 1:12). The true church are the believers who repented, accepted
Christ, believed and entered through the gospel - His finished work in Calvary enough for
their salvation (Mark 1:15, Hebrews 3:6, Ephesians 3:6).
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MEMBERS
CHURCH OF GOD
INTERNATIONAL
PROPECY
Leader – Eliseo Soriano
Wiseman
Sent
Stewards of mysteries
Book sealed until end of time
Understood by the wise
True preacher
Eccl 9.15
Rom 10.14-15
1Cor 4.1
Dan 12.4
Dan 12.10
Jn 7.17, 3.34
THE CHURCH
Built by God
where the name of God is
the house of God
Church of God International
Both has the Father and Son
Ps 127.1
Deut 12.5
1Tim 3.15
1Thess 2.14
Mt 16.18 Jn 14.10
SALVATION
From God’s wrath
defer anger for His Name’s sake
Name of the Lord, strong tower,
You are safe
This house were His name is
Church of God International
Be a member which is good
Follow the head of the body
1Thess 1.10
Is 48.9
Prov 18.10
2Chrn 7.16
1Tim 3.15 1Thess 5.21
Eph 3.6 1Thess 5.21
Col 1.18 Eph 1.22
Central Message
Keep his commandments
Mt 28.19-20
Jesus is the way to the Father
by following his commandments
Jn 14.6 Col 2.6-7
To be saved have faith on the doctrines from the true preacher
Rom 10.14-15
“Dating Daan/ Old Path” the right way were salvation is.
Baptism- for remission of sins
Act 2.38
to be born again
Jn 3.3-5
to receive the Holy Spirit Act 2.38
to become member of the
1Cor 12.13
church, accepting the doctrines
Mt 28.19-20
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GOD
There are many gods on heaven and on earth
Father, Son and the Holy Spirit
Father- greater than the Son
King of kings, Lord of lords in heaven
(the Son only on earth)
Not know all things (limited) only after man has decided
Not present everywhere (limited)
The Lord’s Suffer is not literally practiced, it is spiritual
The bread and wine are the teachings they share on gatherings
MAN’S DEATH
Into the grave
sleeps(soul/body)
no knowledge at death
raised in the last day
souls also dies
cleaves to the dust
Ps 88.5, 146.4 Act 2.29, 34
Jn 11.11-14 1Thess 4.14
Eccl 9.5, 10 Jb 7.9-10
Jb 14.10, 12 Jn 11.11-14, 5.28
Ezek 18.4
Ps 119.25
will exist at the judgment day
Mt 13.38-4=, 16.27
Jn 12.48, 5.28-29
HELL
INDOCTRINATION
(For those who wants to be a member)
Commandments/ Laws
1. The teacher to be heard to be saved
2. Prayer
3. Evil part of man
4. Conduct toward brethren
5. Conduct toward outsiders
6. Conduct Prohibited
7. Clothing
8. Gathering
9. Giving
10. The Sower
11. Thanksgiving
12. Sin against the Spirit
13. Baptism
Mt 28.19-20 Mk 7.6-7
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Church
General
Declaration
and Doctrines
DOCTRINES
Section 1
We believe in the Almighty God, the Father, the Creator
of the universe, in Christ Jesus, the Father’s begotten
son, a true and Mighty God, the only savior of mankind
and the only way to the Kingdom of God in heaven (
Acts 14:15; I Cor. 8:5-7; John 14:6; 14:1 ).
Section 2
We believe that only the Bible or the Holy Scriptures,
composed of 66 inspired books, teaches the full wisdom
of God for the salvation of man and that no other books
should be used as basis for serving God and Christ
Jesus ( Romans 1:16-17; 2:16; Gal. 1:8-9; II Thes. 1:1-9;
John 20:31; Isa. 34:16; John 5:39 ).
Section 3
We believe that the God the Father sent His son Jesus
Christ, instrumental in the establishment of the
CHURCH OF GOD INTERNATIONAL, INC., the
congregation of the Apostles, Prophets, Teachers, etc;
first planted in the city of Jerusalem, and later on
scattered and preached by the Apostles in different
places of Asia Minor ( Matt. 16:18; Acts 8:1; Gal. 1:22; I
Thes.2:14 ).
Section 4
We believe that the Gentile nations including the
Philippines, are partakers of the promise, the
ETERNAL LIFE, through belief in Christ Jesus and the
Gospel and are not authorized by God TO ESTABLISH
THEIR OWN CHURCH, but are mere members
associated with the same body or Church written in the
Gospel by accepting and executing the doctrines
written by the Apostles ( Ephe. 3:6; Col. 1:18; I John
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Jesus said He that believed and is baptized shall be saved. Repent and believe the
gospel (Mark 1:15, 15:15-16). Baptism follows after repentance and faith in the gospel. It is
evident in this group in their 13 topics on indoctrination there is no gospel preached. They
teach doctrines and baptize believers. This is man made. The way of the apostles is they
preach first the Lord Jesus’ death and resurrection (the gospel) to the Jews and the Gentiles
before teaching the doctrines. Faith in Christ should first be developed in the believer to be
saved. Christ’s crucifixion and resurrection for our salvation is not proclaimed in their
indoctrination.
It is not to teach the doctrines first and be baptized. Nowhere in their 13 topics make
one to have faith in Christ to be his Lord and Savior. Paul asked the believers in Galatians
3:1-2, “Did you receive the Spirit of God by obedience to the Law or by faith?... Is not
Christ crucified clearly portrayed before you eyes?” There is nothing wrong with the
commandments of Christ being taught. We are to obey it but wrong application of the
commandments is not acceptable. The believer has to be in Christ first when he puts his
trust in Him and is baptized. Then the commandments follow. The leader claims to have
great knowledge of the Scripture but do not know the gospel truth. The truth is that Christ
was sent by the Father from heaven to redeem man from his sins through his death and
resurrection. Whoever shall repent and believe the gospel that is faith in Christ shall not see
death but have eternal life. Salvation is not by the church or any group.
Satan has many ways in using religions to hide the gospel. We are saved by the gospel. If
one does not understand the gospel he shall not be saved. In Iglesia ni Kristo, Satan hides
the gospel by teaching doctrines and entering their church which is named church of christ.
The group of Soriano falls into the same error denying the Lord. For them, to be saved is to
keep the commandments of Christ and be a part of the church of god international (their
group) according to them Christ built in Jerusalem. This is the kingdom of God where one
must enter according to them. These teachings move away the trust and faith in Christ
finished work of salvation on the cross.
It is God who puts you in the true Church (Acts 2:47). Salvation is only through the
death and resurrection of Christ and that whosoever repents and believes the gospel shall
be saved. Obedience to His commandments follows because he is saved (Acts 16:30-31,
20:20-21, 2:47, Ephesians 2:8-10). The true Church of Jesus Christ holds this gospel truth.
These are the believers who heard the gospel, have repented and trusted Jesus for their
salvation. These Christians are all over the world today.
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KINGDOM OF JESUS CHRIST
THE NAME ABOVE EVERY NAME
Leader/Founder
Apollo S. Quiboloy
Davao City, Davao,
Philippines
Claims and Teachings:
Apollo S. Quiboloy belongs to the group they call Oneness. Oneness believes that
there is one God and that God is the Father alone. When God took the form of
man He became the Son of God. Jesus is in heaven now as God the Father. Now
he pronounced himself as inheriting the sonship.
He claims revelations from the Father:
“Jesus Christ is now the Father…is my Father.”
“Jesus Christ is not the Son anymore.”
God masterfully maneuvered the completion of his work through me…as an
instrument in fulfilling His will.”
“Do you know why the Lord suffered…underwent that cruel sacrifice on the
cross? That was to produce me!”
“What Jesus Christ the Jewish Son of the Father failed to do…what my
Father…failed to do among the chosen people.”
“The model of being a Son of God now is me.”
John 3:5…was fulfilled in me. I have become the Son…the Father’s completion
of salvation is already done in me.”
God’s Newest Son
Message from the Son: Apollo Quiboloy whose ministry is named The Kingdom of Jesus Christ
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“…God the Father has given him” “This great opportunity of sharing to you the divine wisdom
and revelations He has bestowed upon me as His Designated Son in these last days.
“Don’t miss your visitation. Harken unto the voice of the Father now as He speaks through his
son. Treasure each word and each moment for this privilege is graced only to those who are true
children of God, chosen and handpicked by the Father to receive His revelation through His Son.”
Apollo holds to the Oneness Pentecostal view of God, that denies the tri-unity of the Father, the Son and
the Comforter. Along with this, he has a mix of Latter Rain teachings (ie. Manifest son of Godspecifically- Him)
The idea he presents is that God the Father and Jesus Christ are one and the same Person. Ignoring the
words spoken to Jesus, His Son from the Father in heaven (twice Mt.3:17; Lk.17:5) “This is my beloved
Son, in whom I am pleased.”
He Apollo himself is “the Son of God” and not just a “son” but “the Son of God.” He quotes the verses that
directly apply to Jesus Christ. He states publicly that he is the “sent one” of God and quotes John 7:29 and
8:18 which are reserved for Jesus Christ ONLY.
Their Website (www.kingdomofjesuschrist.org) says “I am the way the truth the life no man cometh unto
the Father except by ME” Pastor Apollo C. Quiboloy servant son of God (meaning Him). Under a sign
outside his church in Hawaii it says Rev. Apollo Quiboloy Son of God.
On his website it explains-September 13, 2003 eighteen years after powerfully declaring the
revolution in the spirit and in the hearts and minds of the children of God, Pastor Apollo was
ushered into his private ministry- the reign of the Father through the Son.”
The Official Turning of Power from the Father to the Son, “Pastor Apollo received a message
from the Father that all power in heaven and earth; and the riches, wealth, prestige and authority
will be handed over to him as the son.”
According to Quiloboy's teaching, it was necessary that the Son of God to appear in the flesh of a Gentile.
On his website it is asked Are you Jesus Christ in the Gentile body?
“More than 2,000 years ago, Jesus Christ came in the flesh to testify to all that God can dwell in a
human body, in the life of a man. It is here now. The life that lived in Israel before is now here. He
is now using a Gentile body.”
If He was able to come to the Jewish people, He can also come to the Gentile people. John 5:23
says, “That all men should honor the Son, even as they honor the Father. He that honoreth not
the Son honoreth not the Father which hath sent him.” My works bear witness of me. And the
Father Himself, who sent me, has borne witness of me.”
On his website his answer to What
is the role of the Son?
“If you're appointed as the Son, you're like the ruler of the house. You are the president of all the
children of God who are born in the Spirit, because the Kingdom of God is the nation of God.”
When God called you, were you aware that your ministry would
become that of the Son? “As I grow in the spirit with the Father, He reveals many things to
On his website-
me from time to time. He appointed me the position of feeding His people His words, the spiritual
bread. Luke 12:43-44 says, “Blessed is that servant, whom his lord when he cometh shall find
so doing. Of a truth I say unto you, that he will make him ruler over all that he hath.” The meat
in due season are the revelations that would be revealed as time passes. You don't learn
everything in just one sitting. Slowly, God will reveal everything until everything becomes clear in
your mind.”
On his website When did you realize that your ministry would be the ministry of the Son?
The Book of Jeremiah 1:4 states how the Word of the Lord came unto Jeremiah. That is also how the Word
of the Lord came unto me. What happened to the prophet Jeremiah also happened to me.
“When He had directed me, I did not know back then what His plan for me was. While growing up in the
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spiritual learning, you still wouldn't know what would become of you. I was being led into something. I did
the things that I was being led to do. Then, I began to understand that I already have a calling.”
One of the works this new “Son of God” claims to exhibit is the spirit of obedience, but obedience to whom
may be the question. To Him of course, they obey his word and how He uses the Bible.
“ the complete essence of the message of the Spiritual Revolution, which is the message of the Son
of God.
“The purpose why Jesus Christ came is for us to become co-heirs and children of His Kingdom.
The purpose of Spiritual Revolution which Jesus Christ started is to topple down the old spirit of
disobedience and receive the new spirit of obedience to the will of God. John 3:5 states that if you
want to enter the Kingdom of God, you must be born again in the Spirit. If you're born again in
the Spirit, you become a child of God. It's not enough to remain just a servant. A servant will not
abide in the house forever, but only the children will abide in the house of the Father forever.”
God’s Kingdom has Arrived on Earth
With Quiboloy as the new Son of God (Messiah) the new Jerusalem will arise in Davao because as he
previously stated “the church age had ended.” On one TV program he said “… it is also the same in the
days of the son in the Gentile city now is the fulfillment of his salvation” (Kingdom of Jesus Christ program
on LeSea, Dec.26, 2004) “As Noah has finished so have I finished the work of salvation” In his invitation
for salvation he said “Become one of the 3 million…enter the ark of salvation, the new Jerusalem.”
(Kingdom of Jesus Christ program, LeSea Dec.26, 2004)
Under the title on his website- THE KINGDOM OF JESUS CHRIST The Name Above Every Name-“Centuries after centuries have passed and the revelation of truth has progressed until the
Kingdom of God has grown to its fullness. From Jerusalem , the truth extended to the farthest
reaches of Asia particularly in the far-flung area of Tamayong, at the foothills of Mt. Apo , Davao
City , a historical place wherein Pastor Apollo C. Quiboloy was born, anointed and trained by
God in the spirit.”
“The holy Bible says in the book of Exodus that wonders have taken place in the mountains. The
Ten Commandments were given by God to Moses on a mountain. World’s greatest sermon was
preached on a mountain. Greatest prayers were prayed and answered on mountains. Christ was
transfigured on a mountain. And as prophesied in the book of Zechariah, Christ will make His
future return on a mountain”.
In these last days, God has once again chosen a mountain where He could let
His children live. As our beloved Pastor Apollo had said in his fellowships, Tamayong, the site
of the Covenant Mountain and Prayer Center, then was a place you would never wish to live in. It
was nothing but a place of uncivilization. That was Tamayong before. But an extreme twist has
happened when God manifested his divine providence to His chosen Son. Tamayong, the place
that you would never want to live in before has become a haven closest to heaven. It has become a
pilgrimage for the children of God.. (website-WHAT IS THE COVENANT MOUNTAIN AND
PRAYER CENTER)
Here we have a NEW Mecca of sorts that he claims is directed by God himself. Calling it the “seat of
God’s governance on earth…a haven closest to heaven…” He likens it to Mount Sinai or The Mount of
Transfiguration.
On the website he is asked
What is the difference between you and Jesus Christ?
“The only thing that is different between Jesus Christ and me is that Jesus Christ was God Himself
in the flesh. He was the firstborn of the brethren. His Father, the One who formed Him in the
womb, was a Spirit. He was clothed in human flesh because He was born of a woman. My father
was flesh; my mother was flesh. I was born from the fallen Adamic nature. The Adamic race which
is the object of His love. His love was manifested through redemption and salvation”.
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While he admits that Jesus Christ was God Himself in the flesh, he is claiming equality with him when he
says he is the newest Son of God on earth. Newer in this sense does not mean equal, it means ANOTHER,
in place of Christ.
On his website it says- Son
of God: fulfillment of the Old and New Testament
“The life of Jesus Christ is in me. If there will be another book that will be included in the Holy
Scriptures, it will be the book of the fulfillment of the Old and New Testament. This fulfillment
happened in my life when God called me.
The purpose of the Old and New covenant is to save us from sin, while the purpose of the Old and New
Testament is for the Lord to produce a new man from the fallen Adamic race.
“Kingdom Youth” statement:
Pastor Quiboloy is True... he is really the Son Of God in these last days. Many
people didn't know because they have the mentality of religions and denomination
and that's the old paradigm... I want to let the Whole World know that THE
MESSIAH that we've been waiting for is already here! Those that are not
children of God will not going to believe it, but we people of God believe that the
deliverer is in our midst...Come and enter now into the KINGDOM OF JESUS
CHRIST (the name above every name). Your Salvation is here... hear the Father's
audible voice, his anointed and appointed SON...PASTOR APPOLO C.
QUIBOLOY.
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Apollo Quiboloy teaches we as children of disobedience, we should surrender to God
in repentance. God shall take that seed of the serpent and put the seed of the Son. He uses
the name of JESUS CHRIST THE NAME ABOVE EVERY NAME but forgot the gospel
truth that all the CULTS are GUILTY OF. Through this they indirectly deny the gospel
truth that Christ came to die for our sins for our atonement and salvation. God calls all to
repent and have faith in Christ to be saved and not repent alone. They only teach
repentance to enter into the Kingdom of God and they forgot Christ crucifixion as the
ultimate payment for our sins.
This false prophet claims that the Father finished the work of salvation in him but
the truth is it is finished by and in Christ (John 19:30, Hebrews 9:26-28, 10:10-12). He is
Christ in the Gentile body. Repent of your sins and believe the Son (Apollo S. Quiboloy) and
you shall be saved and he is the way the truth and the life. Jesus attributed these words to
Himself alone (John 3:36, 14:6).
Christ will not come again visibly as Christians believe all over the world because
according to him Christ is here already, himself (Quiboloy). Jesus said many shall come in
my Name and shall deceive many. A. Quiboloy is a false prophet. He has the spirit of the
anti-christ— which means literally a substitute for Christ. How can he be saved and his
followers if they don’t have faith in the only begotten Son of God, Jesus Christ who died
once and for all at the cross for our redemption. The leader and the followers were deceived
by Satan by believing into a lie. The big lie was Apollo Quiboloy is now the Son of God and
he is to be believed as the way. Salvation in Christ alone was hidden. The plan of Satan is
always to move people out of their pure devotion and faith to Christ alone. For salvation is
through repentance and faith in Christ as the only Lord and Savior to the glory of God the
Father. The gospel was hidden by the Satan by exalting Apollo Quiboloy as the appointed
Son of God and the Christ in the Gentile body.
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SEVENTH DAY ADVENTIST
HISTORY
Founded by William Miller from US. First called Adventist, believing the Second Coming of
Christ. Predicted to come at 1844. His prophecy failed and called the Great Disappointment. Study
of Scripture he found that the Seventh day is Saturday or Sabbath. Then they were called Seventh
Day Adventist.
MAN
At death, not know anything
the soul sleeps
resurrected at the last day
righteous not yet in heaven
wicked not in hell, in the grave
Ps 146.4 Eccl 9.10,6,5 Ps 115.17, 6.5
Jn 11.11-14
Jn 5. 28-29, 11.23, 24, 19.25-27
Act 2.29, 34 1Cor 15.22, 23, 51-55
1Thess 4.16-17 Phil 3.20-21
Mt 13.38-40 Rev 20.5, 9, 14, 15
LAW/COMMANDMENTS
10 Commandments binding
on Christians
Kept forever
Christ came not to delay
Tells us what sin and
not transgress
Keep the Sabbath
Pork, blood, food, herbs and
wine prohibited
Mt 22.37-40, 19.17 Js 2.10
Jn 14.15, 15.10
Ps 119.152
Mt 5.17-19
1Jn 3.4 Rom 7.7
Ex 31.18, 20.8-11 Is 66.22-23, 58.13-14
Lk 4.16 Ezek 20.12, 22.26 Is 8.16, 20
Mt 15. 3,9,13 Act 17.2, 16.13, 13.42,44
Gen 7.2 Lev 11.9, 11.3, 6-7 Is 66.15,17
Act 15.29 Deut 29.18 Prov 20.1 Lk 21.34 (1Cor
10.31 2Cor 6.17)
SALVATION
Central Message:
Faith in Jesus Christ in His death
Mt 1.21
on the cross
Act 16.30-31, 3.19 Ijn 1.9
Keep the commandments (Keep the Sabbath)
No salvation without it
Eccl 12.13-14 Rev 14.12, 22.14 Js 2.10
Belong to the true church
Rev 14.12 Act 2.41,47 Mt 12.30, 25
Jn 10.1,7,16 Eph 4.5
Baptism door to the church
1Cor 12.12,13
Keeping not all this is
Prov 28.9
unpardonable sin
Jn 14.21,26, 16.8,13
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Especially the 10 Commandments
If not followed he will be lost
Mt 12.31 Js 4.17 Heb 10.26
HELL
Only Second Death
No hell now, not in torment
Annihilation, destruction, burned
by fire
After which no fire left
Results of fire are eternal not
eternal fire
Rev 21.8 Mt 10.28
Mt 13.38-40
Ps 145.20, 37.20, 21.9
Mal 13.38-40, 16.27
Jn 12.48, 5.28-29
Is 47.14 Ps 37.20,10
Jde 7 Rev 20.10,9
JUDGMENT DAY
All shall appear
Jesus advocator of the righteous
Judged according to what is written
according to our works
2 Cor 5.10 Act 17.31 Dan 7.9,10
1Jn 2.1 Heb 4.15,7.25 Rev 20.15
Phil 4.3
Rev 20.12
Mt 12.36 Eccl 11.9 Rev 22.11-12
Today the Adventists are no longer considered as cults because they believe salvation is by faith in Jesus
Christ and not by the Ten Commandments.
This group began teaching that to be saved you must keep the Ten Commandments,
keep the Sabbath and enter their church. But now among its leaders and people they have
shown strong convictions that salvation is by grace alone through faith in Christ not of
works, which we have done.
They still keep the Ten Commandments as a way of life and worship on the Sabbath
and not on the first day of the week as observed by Christians. What is important here is
whom they trust for the salvation of their souls. The basic truth is that if you hold the true
gospel as the apostles of Jesus Christ have taught you are not cast out or damned.
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SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS OF THE CULTS
AND THEIR TEACHINGS
Cults have the cloak of Christianity but deny its saving power in Christ. The most
central and noticeable character of all the cults we have studied is that “they deny in their
teachings the suffering, death and resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ to be enough for
man’s forgiveness and salvation and one should hear this gospel, repent and believe to be
saved.” This gospel truth is hidden, lacked and not preached by them.
Below are the lists of errors that are common among these cults.

Satan through the guise of religion and a false church hides the gospel by
exalting the leader, the name of the church and their new found unbiblical
and unsound doctrines

the Bible is not enough for them

they have new revelations contradicting the original
written word

these revelations comes from spirits, they where given
new books and new teachings from their leaders

by these they begin to deny Christ as the only Lord
and Savior, Christ’s death and resurrection is not
sufficient for redeeming man from his sins


by substituting with obedience to their doctrines
corrupting the Scriptures
the gospel is not clear to them, they believe that the
word of God is the gospel which are composed of doctrines they concocted
erroneously from the scriptures
 but the word of God clearly shows us that the gospel is
about the Son of God who died on the cross and
resurrected from the dead for our salvation and
forgiveness

Jesus becomes a small god, a man, a prophet, some accepts He is divine but
denies He is enough for salvation

they all teach in order to be save you have to enter
and belong to their group

their leader is the only messenger of God today

They do maintain that God is the Father, some deny the divinity of Jesus
Christ, the Only Son of God and all deny the deity of the Holy Spirit
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WHAT THE BIBLE HAS TO SAY TO THE CULTS:
“If we or an angel from heaven preach another gospel contrary to what you
have received let him be accursed…”
Galatians 1:8-9
“Do not believe every spirit, but test every spirit whether they are from God,
because many false prophets have come out into the world. By this you know the
Spirit of God: every spirit that confesses that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is
from God”
1John 4:1-2
“But the Spirit explicitly says that in the later times some will fall away from
the faith, paying attention to deceitful spirits and doctrines of demons,”
1Timothy 4:1
“For many will come in my Name, saying I am the Christ and will mislead
many.”
Matthew 24:5
Jesus said to him, “I am the way, and the truth, and the life; No one comes to
the Father but through Me.”
John 14:6
I testify to everyone who hears the words of the prophecy of this book: If
anyone adds to them, God will add to him the plagues which are written in this
book; and if anyone takes away from words of the book of this prophecy, God will
take away his part from the tree of life and from the holy city, which are written in
this book.’
Revelation 22:18-19
191
OCCULTISM
OCCULT
Occult comes from the Latin word “occult”. It carries the idea of things hidden, sacred and
mysterious.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OCCULTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
Deals with the things hidden or secret.
Deals with operation of events beyond human power.
Deals with super natural presence of demonic forces.
Deals with satanic and demon worship and influences.
OCCULTS
Astrology, fortune telling, magic, spiritism, palmistry, card reading, superstition,
hypnotism, witchcraft, parapsychology, amulets, mediumship, incantations and
satanism.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Why people get involved
superstition
offspring curse
fortune
due to incurable diseases
curiosity
conformity
dissatisfied with religious experience
power of satan draws and blinds
ambitious to powers
no faith in God
looks for experience
searches the way
have not known God
not know the truth
not know God’s word
poverty
family curse
transfer of spirits
spells
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WHAT THE BIBLE HAS TO SAY REGARDING THE OCCULTS:
“When you enter the land which the LORD your God gives
you, you shall not learn to imitate the detestable things of
those nations. There shall not be found among you anyone
who makes his son or his daughter pass through fire, one who
uses divination, one who practices witchcraft, or one who
interprets omens, or a sorcerer, or one who casts a spell, or a
medium, or a spiritist, or one who call up the dead.
For whoever does these things is detestable to the LORD; and because of
these detestable things the LORD your God will drive them out before you.
You shall be blameless before the LORD you God.”
Deuteronomy18:9-13
“But I say to you, the rest who are in Thyatira, who do not hold this
teaching, who have not known the deep things of Satan, as they call them- I place no
other burden on you.”
Revelation 2:24
“But for the cowardly and unbelieving and abominable and murderers and
immoral persons and SORCERERS and IDOLATERS and all liars, their part will
be in the lake that burns with fire and brimstone, which is the second death.”
Revelation 21:8
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INVITATION
Dear friend:
GOD LOVES YOU …
We can end the search. God looked down and searched for man. He has sent His
Son Jesus Christ and reached out for us.
May the God of heaven and earth and Father of the Lord Jesus Christ enlighten you
with these truths. Come to Jesus by faith and believe that He died for you and rose from the
dead for your redemption and forgiveness. Confess and receive Him now as the Lord of all
and Savior and you shall be saved and receive eternal life.
“And there is salvation in no one else; for there is no other Name under heaven that has
been given among men by which we must be saved… – JESUS CHRIST…”
Act 4:12, 10
HOW CAN WE BE SAVED?
The Bible says, “but for the cowardly and unbelieving and abominable and
murderers and immoral persons and sorcerers and idolaters and all liars, their part will be
in the lake that burns with fire and brimstone, which is called the second death.”
Revelation 21:8
Jesus revealed Himself as the Son of God from heaven and He took the form of a
man, came down to earth to bring us the true will of His Father.
He said, “I came as the Light to the world, anyone who believes in Me shall not
remain in darkness.” John 12:46. “The Son of Man came to save that which was lost.”
Matthew 18:11 “For Christ also died for sins once and for all, the just for the unjust, so that
He might bring us to God, having been put to death in the flesh, but made alive in the
spirit.” 1Peter 3:18
“He who believes the Son has eternal life.” John 3:36. “And the testimony is this,
that God has given us eternal life, and this life is in His Son. He who has the Son has the life,
he who does not have the Son of God does not have the life.” 1John 5:11-12
194
“that if you confess with your mouth Jesus as Lord, and believe in your
heart that God raised Him from the dead, you will be saved; for with the
heart a person believes, resulting in righteousness, and with the mouth he
confesses, resulting in salvation. For the Scripture says, ‘WHOEVER
BELIEVES IN HIM WILL NOT BE DISAPPOINTED.’ For there is no
distinction between Jew and Greek; for the same Lord is Lord of all,
abounding in riches for all who call on Him; for ‘WHOEVER WILL
CALL ON THE NAME OF THE LORD WILL BE SAVED.’"
Romans 10:9-13
Friend, do you want to be saved from the penalty of sins and from hell? You need to
have the Son of God. He wants to save and dwell in you. He came from heaven, suffered,
died on the cross and has risen from the dead to pay for our sins and for us to have eternal
life.
This is what you should do:



Ask forgiveness from God for all of your sins. Mark 2:5
Repent from all of your sins and forsake them. Luke 13:3
Call upon the Lord Jesus in prayer and receive Him as Lord and Savior.
Romans 10:9
Follow this prayer:
Heavenly Father, I’m coming before You. Forgive me from all of my sins. I
believe that Jesus is Lord. He died and resurrected for our sins. Cleanse me with the
blood of Jesus. Lord Jesus, I receive You as my Lord and Savior. I receive now the
eternal life and forgiveness of all my sins. Lord fill me with Your Holy Spirit. In Jesus
Name. Amen.
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The Religion Chart
Scott.”World Religion Chart”.The Prodigal Thought.3 gfebruary2014.<http://prodigalthought.net/2009/11/06/charts-on-worldreligions-denominations/>
196
Comparison/Contrast of Various
Religions & Christianity

HINDUISM 1500 B.C.

JUDAISM 1400 B.C.

SHINTO CA. 660 B.C.

TAOISM CA. 600 B.C.

BUDDHISM CA. 563 B.C.

CONFUCIANISM CA. 551 B.C.

CHRISTIANITY CA. A.D. 30

ISLAM CA. A.D. 622

SIKHISM CA. A.D. 1469
Differences between the Religions
Hinduism
Ultimate Reality
Nature/Humanity
Humanities
Problems
Salvation
Final State
Buddhism
no god;or
impersonal essence;
impersonal
or many gods
"buddha essence"
Islam
Christianity
a Creator who is
a creator who is
personal & who has
unknowable
made himself known
divine in our
essence
created by god,
created by God and
no personal essence but nothing is at
in his image
all like him
trapped in
reincarnations in an
illusionary world,
due to ignorance &
karma
trapped in
reincarnations in a
world of suffering,
due to desire and
karma
under the
judgment of
allah, due to
failure to keep
the law
under God's
judgment, due to
sinful rebellion
deliverance from
the world through
knowledge, works,
or devotion
deliverance from
the world of
suffering through
the cessation of
desire
deliverance
from judgment
through
obedience to the
law
deliverance from
judgment by faith in
God's gracious
provision of salvation
through Jesus Christ
merging with
ultimate reality, or
heavenly bliss in the
presence of gods
extinction of
suffering, desire,
and individuality
(nirvana)
paradise or hell heaven or hell
197
Buddhism & Christianity Contrasted
THERAVADA
BUDDHISM
MAHAYANA BUDDHISM
CHRISTIANITY
Nirvana, an abstract void,
but also an undifferentiated
Buddha essence
A personal God who is selfexistent and changeless
an impermanent collection of
aggregates. For some,
personal existence continues
for a while in the Pure Land
Made in God's image.
Personal existence has value.
We continue to exist as
persons after death.
We suffer because of
desire that which is
temporary, which
THE
causes us to continue
PROBLEM
in the illusion of the
existence of the
individual self
Same as Theravada
We suffer because of the
consequences of our sin. But
we also suffer because, being
made in God's image, we are
fulfilled only when in
relationship with God.
Rebellion against God causes
alienation from God.
To cease all desire in
order to realize the
THE
non-existence of the
SOLUTION
self, thus finding
permanence
To become aware of the
Buddha nature within
To be forgiven and reconciled
with God. Finding
permanence in the
immutability of God
GOD
Nirvana, an abstract
void
An impermanent
HUMANITY collection of
aggregates
THE
MEANS
Self-reliance. The means vary
from that following the
Self-reliance. Must
Eightfold path, to emptying
Reliance on God. Repenting
follow the middle path the mind, to accruing merit
of sins and trust in the saving
and accrue karmic
by performing rituals, to
work of Jesus Christ
merit
realizing the Buddha nature
within, to depending on the
merits of a bodhisattva
The enter Nirvana
THE
where the ego is
OUTCOME
extinguished
The outcome varies from that
of returning as a bodhisattva
in order to guide others, to
entering nirvana, to living in
a Pure Land from which one
can enter nirvana
198
Our existence as individuals
survives death, and we are
fulfilled as we are in eternal
fellowship with a loving and
personal God
Buddha and Jesus
THERAVADA BUDDHISM
CHRISTIANITY
Buddha did not claim to have a special
relationship with God.
Jesus did claim to have a special relationship with
God
Buddha claimed to point to the way by which
we could escape suffering and attain
enlightenment
Jesus claimed to be the way by which we could
receive salvation and eternal life
Buddha taught that the way to eliminate
suffering was by eliminating desire
Jesus taught that the solution to suffering is found
not in eliminating desire but in having right desire
Islam and Christianity Contrasted
Islam
God
Christianity
A singular unity. No partner is to
associated with God
A compound, or complex unity-one in
essence, three in person
Humanity Good by nature
Sin
Sinful by nature
is thought of in terms of rejecting right
guidance. It can be forgiven through
repentance. No atonement is necessary
The standard for salvation is having one's
Salvation good deeds outweigh one's bad deeds.
Therefore it is based on human effort
Sin is serious in that it is spoken of as
causing spiritual death. It reflects an
attitude of moral rebellion against the
holy God, which causes us to be alienated
from him. An atonement is necessary
before relationship with God can be
restored
The standard for salvation is the absolute
holiness of God. Therefore, it can only be
offered as a gift by God, based on his
grace and Jesus' atoning work, and it can
be received through faith. Salvation
cannot be earned
Jesus
One of the major prophets. To associate
Jesus with God is blasphemy. Muslims
affirm the virgin birth of Jesus and the
miracles that he performed
The one and only begotten Son of God
Death of
Jesus
According to Islamic tradition, Jesus did
not die on the cross. Instead, he ascended
to heaven, and Judas died in his place on
the cross. Muslims believe that it is
disrespectful to believe that God would
Jesus died a physical death and gave his
life as the substitutionary atonement for
our sins. He then rose from the dead in a
physical but immortal body and
appeared to hundreds of witnesses. The
199
allow one of his prophets-and especially
one of the most honored of the prophets-to
be crucified.
The Bible Corrupted. Abrogated by the Qur'an
end was not that of dishonor but that of
the highest exaltation.
Authentic. Divinely inspired. The final
authority in all matters of faith and truth
The God of the Qur'an & The God of the Bible
(Similarities)
Both are One
Both are sovereign
Both are transcendent Creators of the universe
Both are omnipotent
Both have spoken to humanity through messengers or
prophets, through angels, and through the written word
Both know in intimate detail the
thoughts and deeds of mankind
Both will judge the wicked
The God of the Qur'an & The God of the Bible (Differences)
Qur'an
Bible
God is a singular unity
God is a compound unity who is in essence & three in person
God is not a father, and he has
begotten no sons
God broke into history through a word that is
written
"loves not the prodigals"
God is a tri-unity who has eternally existed as Father, Son,
and Holy Spirit
God broke into history through the Word who is Jesus Christ
Jesus tells the story of a father, a metaphor for God the
Father, who longs for the return of his prodigal son
Allah loves not those that do wrong &
are treacherous, sinful
“Comparison/Contrast of Various Religions &
Christianity”.Tkoh.Org.3February2014.<http://tkoh.org/traingmanuals/cog/comparisoncontrast_of_various_r.htm>.
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