LANGUAGE
Chapter 5
What Are Languages, and What Role
Do Languages Play in Culture?
• Language: A set of sounds, combinations of
sounds, and symbols used for communication
• Standard language: A language that is published,
widely distributed, and purposefully taught
• Role of government in standardizing a language
Language and Culture
“No one was allowed to speak the language – the Dena’ina
language. They [the American government] didn’t allow it in
the schools, and a lot of the women had married non-native
men, and the men said, ‘You’re American now so you can’t
speak the language.’ So, we became invisible in the
community. Invisible to each other. And, then, because we
couldn’t speak the language – what happens when you
can’t speak your own language is you have to think with
someone else’s words, and that’s a dreadful kind of
isolation [emphasis added].”
- Clare Swan, elder, Kenaitze band, Dena’ina Indians
1. What was the purpose of policies like this? Were they
effective?
3
The Internet: Globalization of Language
2. What effect will
the internet have on
language going into
the future?
Language and Politics
3. What
language do
you think is
spoken in those
dark blue
areas?
What are the
political
implications?
Non-English Speakers
Political issue of speakers of Spanish and other
languages vs. those desiring English only?
Language and Cultural Identity
7
• Federal level:
• officially bilingual
• Provinces:
– Quebec• officially French
– New Brunswick –
• only province
officially bilingual
– Other provinces
• officially English
Quebec vs. Canada
8
Mutual Intelligibility
• Isogloss: A geographic boundary within which a
particular linguistic feature occurs
• Criterion for a language: Speakers can understand each
other
– Problems
• Measuring “mutual intelligibility”
• Standard languages and government impact on
what is a “language” and what is a “dialect”
– Dialect: variant of standard language by ethnicity or
region
• Vocabulary
• Syntax 4. What is Syntax?
• Cadence, pace
• Pronunciation
English Speaking Countries
Fig. 5-1: English is the official language in 42 countries, including some in which it is
not the most widely spoken language. It is also used and understood in
many others.
10
The Queens English
• A dialect is a regional variation of a
language distinguished by distinctive
vocabulary, spelling, and
pronunciation.
• English has an especially large number
of dialects.
• One particular dialect of English, the
one associated with upper-class
Britons living in the London area, is
recognized in much of the Englishspeaking world as the standard form
of British speech, known as British
Received Pronunciation (BRP).
11
Differences between British and
American English
• The earliest colonists
were most responsible
for the dominant
language patterns that
exist today in the
English-speaking part of
the Western
Hemisphere.
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Differences in Vocabulary and Spelling
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
English in the United States and England evolved independently
(Isolation) during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
U.S. English differs from that of England in three significant ways:
vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation.
The vocabulary is different because settlers in America
encountered many new objects and experiences, which were
given names borrowed from Native Americans.
As new inventions appeared, they acquired different names on
either side of the Atlantic.
Spelling diverged because of a strong national feeling in the
United States for an independent identity.
Noah Webster, the creator of the first comprehensive American
dictionary and grammar books, was not just a documenter of
usage, he had an agenda.
Webster argued that spelling and grammar reforms would help
establish a national language, reduce cultural dependence on
England, and inspire national pride.
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Differences in Pronunciation
• Differences in pronunciation between
British and U.S. speakers are immediately
recognizable.
• Interaction between the two groups was
largely confined to exchange of letters and
other printed matter rather than direct
speech.
• Surprisingly, pronunciation has changed
more in England than in the United States.
• People in the United States do not speak
“proper” English because when the
colonists left England, “proper” English
was not what it is today.
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British Slang Words
Below are a few slang words commonly used in Britain.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bloke - man.
'John is a nice bloke to know.'
Botched - poor quality repairs.
'He made a botched job of fixing the
television.'
Bottle - courage.
'He doesn't have the bottle to ask her.'
Cheesed Off - fed up
Chuck it down - to rain, often heavily.
'It is going to chuck it down soon.'
Chuffed - If you are chuffed, you are
happy with something.
'I was chuffed to win a medal!'
Daft - Crazy / stupid
Dosh - Money / cash 'I haven't got much
dosh to give you.'
Gobsmacked - Incredibly amazed.
'I was gobsmacked when I saw my
birthday presents.'
•
•
•
•
•
•
Gutted - Not happy because of an event
that has occurred that didn't go your way.
'I was gutted when I didn't win the race'
Jammy - Used in place of lucky when
describing someone else.
'He was very jammy winning the lottery'.
Scrummy - Delicious. Shortened from
scrumptious.
'The food was very scrummy'
Skint - Broke. No money.
'I'm skint, I wont be able to buy the DVD
today.'
to Snog - to long kiss
Telly - Television
'I watched the news on the telly last
night.'
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Dialects in the United States
•
•
•
•
•
Major differences in U.S. dialects originated because of differences in dialects among the
original settlers.
The original American settlements can be grouped into three areas: New England, Middle
Atlantic, and Southeastern.
Two-thirds of the New England colonists were Puritans from East Anglia in southeastern
England.
About half of the southeastern settlers came from southeast England, although they
represented a diversity of social-class backgrounds.
The immigrants to the Middle Atlantic colonies were more diverse because most of the
settlers came from the north rather than the south of England or from other countries.
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Dialects in the Eastern U.S.
Fig. 5-4: Hans Kurath divided the eastern U.S. into three dialect regions,
whose distribution is similar to that of house types (Fig. 4-9).
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Minor Dialects Today
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Example of Dialect
What American Do You Speak?
http://www.alphadictionary.com/articles/yankee
test.html
Provide a summary of your results.
http://www.pbs.org/speak/seatosea/officialamer
ican/
Should the Us have an official Language? Explain
Why or why not?
http://popvssoda.com:2998/
Report your results
Stop Here: Complete dialects and language patterns activities for Thursday. 20
Standard and Variant Languages
• Standard Language?
– Came from the dialect of the
most powerful and
prestigious
• Dialects? Soda or Pop?
– Social dialects?
– Vernacular language?
– Geographic or regional
dialects?
• Linguistic geography?
- Isogloss?
• Pidgins and Creoles
– Amalgam of languages
– Simplified form Spanglish Spanglish
Song Runglish
– Creole language is a pidgin
language with a more
complex structure and
vocabulary that has become
the native language of a
group of people. Cajun
Standard and Variant Languages
• Lingua Franca
– A lingua franca is a language used
among speakers of different languages for
the purposes of trade and commerce.
Standard and Variant Languages
Multilingualism
• Monolingual states are countries where
almost everyone speaks the same language.
Ex.: Japan, Uruguay, Iceland, Denmark,
Portugal, Poland, Lesotho
• Countries in which more than one language
is in use are called multilingual states.
Language, Territoriality, and
Identity
• Recognition and Autonomy
Insert figure 5.15
© Barbara Weightman
Photo by Mark Bjellend
Language, Territoriality, and Identity
Official Languages
• Countries with linguistic fragmentation
often adopt an official language (or
languages) to tie the people together.
• A State adopts an official language in the
hope of promoting communication and
interaction among peoples who speak
different local and regional languages.
• The official languages in a country are a
reflection of the country’s history.
Should the U.S. adopt an official
Language?
Quebec and Pop 25
Why Are Languages
Distributed the Way They Are?
Classification by language families
(groups of related languages)
Major World Languages
Language Family
Major Language
Numbers (in
millions)
Indo-European
English
445
Hindi
366
Spanish
340
Chinese
1,211
Burmese
32
Japanese
125
Korean
78
Afro-Asiatic
Arabic
211
Malay-Polynesian
Indonesian
154
Dravidian (India)
Telugu
69
Altaic
Turkish
61
Sino-Tibetan
Japanese-Korean
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Language Formation
• Linkages among languages marked by sound shifts slight changes in a word across languages over time –
allow us to trace the evolution of language
Milk = lacte in Latin
lait in French
leche in Spanish
latta in Italian
• Language divergence: Breakup of a language into
dialects and then new languages from lack of
interaction among speakers
• Language convergence: When peoples with different
languages have consistent interaction and their
languages blend into one
• Language divergence: Breakup of a language into
dialects and then new languages from lack of
interaction among speakers.
The further from Britain the more divergent the phrase
Language Formation
• Language convergence: When peoples with
different languages have consistent interaction
and their languages blend into one
Remember the “Spanglish” Song?
The Study of Historical Languages
Backward reconstruction: Tracking sound
shifts and the hardening of consonants
backward to reveal an “original” language
• Can deduce the vocabulary of an extinct
language
• Can recreate ancient languages (deep
reconstruction)
Historical Linkages among Languages
• Indo-European
language family
• Proto-Indo-European
language
• Nostratic Language
(ancient ancestor of
Proto-Indo-European
Language)
Origins of Proto-Indo-European
Renfrew Hypothesis: Began in the Fertile Crescent,
and then
• Europe’s languages from Anatolia
• North Africa and Arabia’s languages from the
Western Arc of Fertile Crescent
• Southwest Asia and South Asia’s languages from
the Eastern Arc of Fertile Crescent
• How do we know? Convergence and divergence
indicates a spatial pattern.
Agriculture Theory of Westward Dispersal
With increased food supply and population, migration of speakers from
the hearth of Indo-European languages into Europe
A different point of origin? The Dispersal Hypothesis
• From the hearth eastward into present-day Iran
• Around the Caspian
• Into Europe
The Languages of Europe
Almost (Basque is the outlier) all European languages fall
under the Indo-European language Family. The three
European sub-groups are:
• Romance languages
• Germanic languages
• Slavic languages
Major Indo-European
Branches
•Germanic
•Romance
•Slavic
Other Indo-European
•Celtic
•Baltic
•Hellenic
•Thracian/Ilyrian
•Other Families
•Finno-Ugric
•Samoyedic
•Altaic
•Other? – Basque?
39
Germanic Branch - English
Diffused throughout the world by hundreds of years of British
colonialism. Brought to New World by British colonies in
1600s. Has become an important global lingua franca.
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Why “Indo”- European??
Indo-European Language Family
Fig. 5-5: The main branches of the Indo-European language family include Germanic,
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Romance, Balto-Slavic, and Indo-Iranian.
India
• 4 language
families – only
Indo-European
& Dravidian
have a
significant
number of
speakers.
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Germanic Branch of Indo-European
•
•
English and German are both languages in
the West Germanic group.
West Germanic is further divided into High
Germanic and Low Germanic subgroups, so
named because they are found in high and
low elevations within present-day Germany.
– High German, spoken in the southern
mountains of Germany, is the basis for the
modern standard German language.
– English is classified in the Low Germanic
subgroup.
– The Germanic language branch also includes
North Germanic languages, spoken in
Scandinavia.
– The four Scandinavian languages—Swedish,
Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic—all derive
from Old Norse.
Fig. 5-6: The Germanic branch today is divided into North and West Germanic
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groups. English is in the West Germanic group.
Indo-Iranian Branch of Indo-European
 The branch of the
Indo-European
language family with
the most speakers is
Indo-Iranian, more
than 100 individual
languages divided into
an eastern group
(Indic) and a western
group (Iranian).
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Indic (Eastern) Group of Indo-Iranian
Language Branch
• The most widely used languages in India, as
well as in the neighboring countries of
Pakistan and Bangladesh, belong to the Indic
group of the Indo-Iranian branch of IndoEuropean.
• Approximately one-third of Indians, mostly
in the north, use an Indic language called
Hindi.
• Hindi is spoken many different ways—and
therefore could be regarded as a collection
of many individual languages but there is
only one official way to write the language,
using a script called Devanagari.
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Pakistan
• Pakistan’s principal language, Urdu,
is spoken very much like Hindi but is
written with the Arabic alphabet, a
legacy of the fact that most
Pakistanis are Muslims, and their
holiest book (the Quran) is written in
Arabic.
• Hindi, originally a variety of
Hindustani spoken in the area of
New Delhi, grew into a national
language in the nineteenth century
when the British encouraged its use
in government.
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South Asian Languages and
Language Families
Fig. 5-7: Indo-European is the largest of four main language families in South Asia.
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The country of India has 18 official languages.
Iranian (Western) Group of IndoIranian Language Branch
• Indo-Iranian languages spoken in Iran and neighboring countries form a
separate group from Indic.
• The major Iranian group languages include Persian (sometimes called
Farsi) in Iran, Pathan in eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan, and
Kurdish, used by the Kurds of western Iran, northern Iraq, and eastern
Turkey.
• These languages are written in the Arabic alphabet.
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Balto-Slavic Branch of Indo-European
• Slavic was once a single
language, but differences
developed in the seventh
century A.D. when several
groups of Slavs migrated
from Asia to different areas
of Eastern Europe.
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East Slavic and Baltic Groups of BaltoSlavic Language Branch
• After Russian, Ukrainian and
Belarusian (sometimes
written Byelorussian) are
the two most important
East Slavic languages.
• The desire to use languages
other than Russian was a
major drive in the Soviet
Union breakup a decade
ago.
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West and South Slavic Groups of BaltoSlavic Language Branch
• The most spoken West Slavic
language is Polish, followed by
Czech and Slovak.
• The latter two are quite similar, and
speakers of one can understand the
other.
• The two most important South
Slavic languages are Serbo-Croatian
and Bulgarian.
• Although Serbs and Croats speak
the same language, they use
different alphabets.
• Slovene is the official language of
Slovenia, while Macedonian is used
in the former Yugoslav republic of
Macedonia.
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Romance Branch of Indo-European
Fig. 5-8: The Romance branch includes three of the world’s 12 most widely spoken
languages (Spanish, French, and Portuguese), as well as a number of
smaller languages and dialects.
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Isolated Languages
• An isolated language is a
language unrelated to any
other and therefore not
attached to any language
family.
• Isolated languages arise
through lack of
interaction with speakers
of other languages.
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A Pre-Indo-European Survivor: Basque
• The best example of an
isolated language in
Europe is Basque.
• Basque is spoken by 1
million people in the
Pyrenees Mountains.
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The Case of Euskera
Spoken by the Basque and in no way related to any other
language family in Europe
An Unchanging Language: Icelandic
• Unlike Basque, Icelandic
is related to other
languages.
• Icelandic’s significance
is that over the past
thousand years it has
changed less than any
other in the Germanic
branch….WHY?
57
Languages of Subsaharan Africa
• Dominant language family: Niger-Congo
– Relatively recent migration
– Continued recognizable similarities among
subfamilies
• Displacement of Khoisan family, now in
southwestern Africa
• More than 400
languages
• Nigeria a colonial
creation
• Choice of English
as “official”
language rather
than any
indigenous
language
Nigeria
Nigeria
• What is the problem with Nigeria and language??
How Do Languages Diffuse?
•
•
•
•
•
•
Human interaction
Print distribution
Migration
Trade
Rise of nation-states
Colonialism
Elizabeth J. Leppman
IT….How will the internet affect language diffusion
and convergence?
Effects of Spatial Interaction
• Lingua franca: A language used among speakers
of different languages for trade and commerce
• Pidgin language: A language created when people
combine parts of two or more languages into a
simplified structure and vocabulary
• Creole language: A pidgin language that has
developed a more complex structure and
vocabulary and has become the native language
of a group of people
Multilingualism
• Monolingual state: A
country in which only
one language is spoken
• Multilingual state:
A country in which more
than one language is in
use
• Official language:
Government-selected
language or languages
to try to enhance
communication in a
multilingual state
Global Language
• English as lingua franca for
– Commerce
– Science
– Travel
– Business
– Popular culture
• Continued use of native languages for dayto-day activities
English: An Example of a Lingua Franca
•
•
•
•
•
A language of international communication
(internet) is known as a lingua franca.
The term, which means language of the Franks, was
originally applied by Arab traders during the Middle
Ages to describe the language they used to
communicate with Europeans, whom they called
Franks.
A group that learns English or another lingua franca
may learn a simplified form, called a pidgin
language.
Two groups construct a pidgin language by learning
a few of the grammar rules and words of a lingua
franca, while mixing in some elements of their own
languages.
Other than English, modern lingua franca languages
include Swahili in East Africa, Hindustani in South
Asia, and Russian in the former Soviet Union.
66
Global Dominance of English
• One of the most fundamental
needs in a global society is a
common language for
communication.
• Increasingly in the modern world,
the language of international
communication is English.
• When well-educated speakers of
two different languages wish to
communicate with each other in
countries such as India or Nigeria,
they frequently use English.
67
Diffusion of English
1. People from England
establishing colonizes.
2. Seventeenth century:
1. North America
2. Ireland
3. Eighteenth century
1. South Asia
2. South Pacific,
4. Nineteenth century
1. Southern Africa.
5. More recently, the United
States has been responsible
for diffusing English to several
places.
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Basis of English
• English originated with three
invading groups who settled in
different parts of Britain. (Anglo’s
– Saxon’s - Jutes)
• The language each spoke was the
basis of distinct regional dialects
of Old English.
• Convergence results in…English
69
Franglais
• The French are particularly upset with
the increasing worldwide domination
of English.
• French is an official language in 26
countries and for hundreds of years
served as the lingua franca for
international diplomats.
• The widespread use of English in the
French language is called franglais, a
combination of francais and anglais,
the French words for French and
English.
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Spanglish
• Spanglish is a richer integration of
English with Spanish than the mere
borrowing of English words.
• New words have been invented in
Spanglish that do not exist in English
but would be useful if they did.
• Spanglish has become especially
widespread in popular culture, such as
song lyrics, television, and magazines
aimed at young Hispanic women, but it
has also been adopted by writers of
serious literature.
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What Role Does Language Play
in Making Places?
• Place: The uniqueness of a location, what people
do in a location, what they create, how they impart
a certain character, a certain imprint on the
location
• Toponym: A place name
– Imparts a certain character on a place
– Reflects the social processes in a place
– Can give a glimpse of the history of a place
The Ten Toponyms
• English Professor George Stewart
More Toponyms
Incidental: Battle Creek Michigan
Bloody Ridge MO
Cut and Shoot Texas
According to one local legend, Cut and Shoot was named after a 1912 community confrontation that almost
led to violence. According to differing versions of the story, the dispute was either over:
The design of a new steeple for the town's only church,
The issue of who should be allowed to preach there, or
The conflicting land claims among church members.
Whatever the circumstances were, a small boy at the scene reportedly declared "I'm going to cut around the
corner and shoot through the bushes in a minute!" This statement apparently stayed in the residents' minds
and was eventually adopted as the town's name.[
Still More Toponyms
Folk Entymology:
These are the toughest to discern. Folk etymology is an
example of one group of language speakers mangling the
language of an earlier group and then assigning their own
“creative explanation for the place name.
Examples:
Norwalk CT – Comes from the Native American name
“naraaswaake” which means “point/penninsula. English
speakers couldn’t pronounce it – becomes Norwalk and the
explanation is a “northern walking path”
Bayou Funny Creek LA – Comes from the Choctaw Name –
Bayou (river) Fani (squirrel)
Tomahawk, WI – Anishinaabe name Tomkaadakuk, meaning
“treaty kettle” – Site of a treaty ceremony
Changing Toponyms
Major reasons people change toponyms
• After decolonization
• After a political revolution
• To commodify or brand a place
• To memorialize people or events
What Role Does Language Play in
Making Places?
Toponyms and Globalization
• The toponyms we see on a map depend in
large part on who produced the map.
• Some embattled locales have more than one
name at the same time.
• Ex.: Argentineans refer to a small cluster
(archipelago) of islands off the southeast
coast of South America as the Malvinas, but
the British call the same cluster of islands
the Falkland Islands.
.
What Role Does Language Play in
Making Places?
Changing Toponyms
• Postcolonial Toponyms: New governments
renamed several countries and newly independent
countries also changed the names of cities and
towns to reflect their independence. Rhodesia >Zimbabwe
• Postrevolution Toponyms: Changes in power
through coups and revolutions prompt name
changes. Burma ->Myanmar
• Memorial Toponyms: People change a
toponym to memorialize an important person or
event. St. Petersburg -> Stalingrad ->St. Petersburg
ACTIVITY: Toponym Road Map
(Complete by Monday. Study Guide part 2 by TUESDAY)