ECE 667
Synthesis and Verification
of Digital Systems
Technology Mapping
(standard cells)
Slides adapted (with permission) from A. Kuehlmann, UC Berkeley 2003
ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
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Technology Mapping
• Where is it used
– After technology independent
optimization
Initial logic network
• Role
– Assign logic functions to gates
from custom library
– Optimize for area, delay,
power, etc.
• Also called
library binding
Cell library
techn-independent
optimization
technology
mapping
manufacturing
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Technology Mapping – standard cells
• Rule-Based [LSS]
• Based on structural mapping [DAGON, MISII]
– Represent each function of a network using a set of base functions
• Typically the base is 2-input NANDs and inverters
• The set should be functionally complete
– This representation is called the subject graph.
– Each gate of the library is likewise represented using the base set.
This generates pattern graphs.
• Represent each gate in all possible ways
– Cover the subject graph with patterns
• graph-based
• binate covering
• Based on Boolean matching (functional)
– Use BDDs to find pattern matching
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Technology-independent Optimization
•
Original logic network (16 literals):
t1 = a + bc;
t2 = d + e;
t3 = ab + d;
t4 = t1t2 + fg;
t5 = t4h + t2t3;
F = t5’.
•
Technology independent optimization
(14 literals):
t1 = d + e;
t2 = b + h;
t3 = at2 + c;
t4 = t1t3 + fgh;
F = t4’;
F
F
t4’
t5’
t4h + t2t3
t1t3 + fgh
at2 +c
t1t2 + fg
a+bc
d+e
ab+d
d+e
b+h
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Cell Library (library of gates)
• Implement the optimized logic network using a set of gates which
form a library
• Each gate has a cost (area, delay, etc.)
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Tree Covering Problem
• Given
– a rooted binary tree T(V,E), called subject tree, and
– a family of rooted pattern trees, each with some cost
• Define a cover of the subject tree:
– a partition of the edge set E, where each block of the
partition induces a tree isomorphic to a pattern tree
– i.e., a set of instances of the pattern trees must cover the
subject tree without covering any edge more than once
• Tree covering problem
– Find a minimum cost covering of the subject graph by
choosing from the collection of pattern graphs for all the
gates in the library.
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Subject Graph
F
F
Subject graph of
2-input NANDs
and invertors
t4 ’
f
t1t3 + fgh
at2 +c
c
d’ e’
g
d+e
b+h
h
a
b’
h’
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Structural Approach
• A cover is a collection of pattern graphs such that:
– every node of the subject graph is contained in one (or more)
pattern graphs
– each input required by a pattern graph is an output of some other
graph (i.e. the inputs of one gate come as outputs of other gates.)
• For minimum area, the cost of the cover is the sum of the areas
of the gates in the cover.
• Technology mapping problem:
– Find a minimum cost covering of the subject graph by
choosing from the collection of pattern graphs (from cell
library).
• Two phases of technology mapping:
– Pattern matching (find all ways a library pattern covers the nodes in
the subject graph)
– Tree covering
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Subject Graph
f
g
t1 = d + e;
t2 = b + h;
t3 = at2 + c;
t4 = t1t3 + fgh;
F = t4’;
d
F
e
h
b
a
c
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Pattern Graphs for the IWLS Library
inv(1)
nand2(2)
nand3 (3)
(cost)
nor3 (3)
nor(2)
oai22 (4)
aoi21 (3)
xor (5)
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Subject graph covering
t1 = d + e;
t2 = b + h;
t3 = at2 + c;
t4 = t1t3 + fgh;
F = t4’;
f
g
d
F
e
Total cost = 23
h
b
a
c
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Better Covering
and2(3)
f
t1 = d + e;
t2 = b + h;
t3 = at2 + c;
t4 = t1t3 + fgh;
F = t4’;
g
d
or2(3)
F
e
h
b
Total cost = 18
aoi22(4)
or2(3)
nand2(2)
a
nand2(2)
c
inv(1)
ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
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Alternate Covering
f
t1 = d + e;
t2 = b + h;
t3 = at2 + c;
t4 = t1t3 + fgh;
F = t4’;
nand3(3)
g
and2(3)
oai21(3)
d
F
e
h
b
Total area = 15
oai21 (3)
a
nand2(2)
c
inv(1)
ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
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Tech. mapping using DAG Covering
Input:
– Technology independent, optimized logic network
– Description of the gates in the library with their cost
Output:
– Netlist of gates (from library) which minimizes total cost
•
General Approach:
–
–
–
Construct a subject DAG for the network
Represent each gate in the target library by pattern of DAG’s
Find an optimal-cost covering of subject DAG using the collection
of pattern DAG’s
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Tech. mapping using DAG covering
• Complexity of DAG covering:
– NP-hard
– Remains NP-hard even when the nodes have out degree  2
– If subject DAG and pattern DAG’s are trees, an efficient algorithm
exists
• Simpler problem: if the subject DAG and primitive DAG’s are trees
– An efficient algorithm to find the best cover exists
– Based on dynamic programming
– First proposed for optimal code generation in a compiler
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Dynamic Programming
• An algorithmic method that solves an optimization problem by
decomposing it into a sequence of decisions.
• Such decisions lead to an optimum solution if the following
Principle of Optimality is satisfied [Bellman 1957]:
– An optimal sequence of decisions has the property that whatever the
initial state and decisions are, the remaining decisions must
constitute an optimal decision sequence w.r.to the state resulting
from the first decision.
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Dynamic Programming
Simpler statement of Principle of Optimality
In an optimal sequence of decisions or choices
each subsequence must also be optimal.
• Typical recursive equation:
cost(i) = mink{ dik + cost(k) }
k1
cost(i)
i
dik
ki
cost(ki)
kj
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Dynamic Programming - example
• Example: shortest path problem in a layered network
cost(i) = mink{ dik + cost(k) }
Step 1: going from Output(s) to Input(s), compute cost of each node
(+ mark the node k that gave minimum cost for i)
9
1
8
3
c
s
a
2
7
5
0
t
6
d
4
5
b
5
3
3
Step 2: going from Input(s) to Ouput(s), select the node on critical path:
(s→c→a→t)
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Dynamic Programming - example
• Similarly, for node i at gate gi:
cost(i) = mink{cost(gi) + k cost(kj) }
i
gi
k1
k2
k inputs to gi
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Optimal Tree Covering by Trees
• Partition subject graph into forest of trees
• Cover each tree optimally using dynamic programming
Given:
– Subject trees (networks to be mapped)
– Forest of patterns (gate library)
•
•
•
•
•
Consider a node N of a subject tree
Recursive Assumption: for all children of N, a best cost match (which
implements the node) is known
Cost of a leaf of the tree is 0.
Compute cost of each pattern tree which matches at N,
Cost = SUM of best costs of implementing each input of pattern
plus the cost of the pattern
Choose least cost matching pattern for implementing N
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Optimum Area Algorithm
Algorithm OPTIMAL_AREA_COVER(node) {
foreach input of node {
OPTIMAL_AREA_COVER(input);// satisfies recurs. assumption
}
// Using these, find the best cover at node
nodearea = INFINITY;
nodematch = 0;
foreach match at node {
area = matcharea;
foreach pin of match {
area = area + pinarea;
}
if (area < nodearea) {
nodearea = area;
nodematch = match;
}
}
}
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Technology Mapping - example
• F = (a’ (b+c))’ = a + b’ c’
Pattern trees (library)
Subject tree (network)
and2 (4)
aoi12 (10)
inv (2)
nand2 (10)
nand2 (7)
or2 (5)
inv (2)
nand2 (3)
a
inv (2)
or2 (5)
inv (2)
b c
aoi12 (6)
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Tree Covering in Action
Library:
(=cost)
nand2(3)
nand2(8)
inv(2)
aoi21
nand2(13)
inv(20)
aoi21(18)
inv(2)
nand4
nand2 = 3
inv = 2
nand3 = 4
nand4 = 5
and2 = 4
aio21 = 4
oai21 = 4
inv(6)
inv(5)
and2(8)
nand2(3) and2(4)
nand2(7)
nand3(4)
nand4
nand2(21)
nand3(22)
nand4(18)
nand2(21)
nand3(23)
nand4(22)
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Complexity of Tree Covering
• Complexity is controlled by finding all sub-trees of the subject
graph which are isomorphic to a pattern tree.
• Complexity of covering is linear in both size of subject tree
and size of collection of pattern trees
• But: for the overall mapping, must add complexity of matching
– Complexity = O(nodes)*(complexity of matching)
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Partitioning the Subject DAG into Trees
Trivial partition: break the graph at all multiple-fanout points
– leads to no “duplication” or “overlap” of patterns
– drawback - sometimes results in many of small trees
Leads to 3 trees
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Partitioning the subject DAG into trees
•
Single-cone partition:
– from a single output, form a large tree back to the primary inputs;
– map successive outputs until they hit matched output formed from
mapping previous primary outputs.
• Duplicates some logic (where trees overlap)
• Produces much larger trees, potentially better area results
output
output
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Min-Delay Covering
• For trees:
– identical to min-area covering
– use optimal delay values within the dynamic programming
paradigm
• For DAGs:
– if delay does not depend on number of fanouts: use dynamic
programming as presented for trees
– leads to optimal solution in polynomial time
• “we don’t care if we have to replicate logic”
• Combined objective
– e.g. apply delay as first criteria, then area as second
– combine with static timing analysis to focus on critical paths
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)
Summary
• Two approaches to technology mapping
– DAG covering
– Binate mapping
• New approaches: combined logic decomposition and
technology mapping
–
–
–
–
Lehman, Watanabe allgorithm [1994]
Efficiently encode a set on AND2/INV decompositions
Dynamically perform logic decomposition
Was implemented and used for commercial design projects (in
DEC/Compac alpha)
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ECE 667 Synthesis & Verification - Technology Mapping (ASIC)