Political and Economic Change
Dr. Afxendiou
AP Comparative Government and Politics
Sachem North High School
Where are we?
Unit I – Introduction to Comparative
Politics
 Sovereignty, Authority and Power
 Political Institutions
 Citizens, Society and the State
• Political and Economic Change
 Public Policy
 Comparison: Sources and Analysis of Data
Τypes of change

REFORM – does not advocate the
overthrow of basic institutions. Reformers
are only seeking to change some of the
methods that political and economic
leaders use to reach their goals.
Examples?
Τypes of change

REVOLUTION – involves a major
revision or a total overthrow of basic
institutions.
◦ What basic institutions did the Industrial
Revolution change?
◦ What basic institutions did the French
Revolution change?
Τypes of change

COUP D’ ETATS – French expression
meaning “blows to the state.” They
replace the leadership of a state. Typically
occur in countries with weak government
institutions and where the leaders have
taken over by force. They use force to
depose leaders. Usually carried out by the
military.
◦ Are you aware of any coup d’ etats?
Attitudes toward change

RADICALISM – believe that RAPID,
dramatic changes need to be made in
society, including the political system
◦ Radicals believe that the existing system
cannot be saved therefore it must be
overturned and replaced with something
better. Can you think of an example of
radicals bringing change?
Attitudes toward change

LIBERALISM – support reform and
gradual change rather than revolution.
◦ Liberals do not think that the political and/or
economic systems are permanently broken,
they believe that they can be repaired or
improved. They support the notion that
eventual transformation needs to take place
but they almost always believe that
GRADUAL CHANGE is best.
Attitudes toward change

CONSERVATISM – less supportive of
change than radicals and liberals
◦ Conservatives tend to see change as
disruptive and sometimes brings unforeseen
consequences. They consider the state and
the regime to be very important sources of
law and order that might be threatened by
making significant changes in the way they
operate. Change might undermine legitimacy
and/or the basic values of the society
Attitudes toward change

REACTIONARY beliefs – even more
against change than conservatives.
◦ Reactionaries are similar to conservatives in
that they oppose both revolution and reform,
but they differ in that they also find the status
quo unacceptable. Instead, they want to turn
back the clock to an earlier era, the good old
days, and reinstate political, social and
economic institutions that once existed.
Similar with radicals in their willingness to use
violence to achieve their goals.
Three trends of change
DEMOCRATIZATION
 MOVE TOWARD MARKET
ECONOMIES
 REVIVAL OF ETHNIC OR CULTURAL
POLITICS

Democratization


Democracy takes many forms but one
essential requirement in any country calling
itself democratic is the presence of
COMPETITIVE ELECTIONS that are regular,
free, and fair.
By this definition, some countries that call
themselves democracies are in a sort of grey
area as they are not clearly holding
competitive elections.
◦ From our AP 6, Russia and Nigeria are in the grey
area
Democratization

LIBERAL DEMOCRACIES – countries that go
beyond the basic requirement of competitive
elections. They have other democratic
characteristics such as:
◦ Civil liberties – freedom of belief, speech and assembly
◦ Rule of law - provides for equal treatment of citizens
and due process
◦ Neutrality of the judiciary – checks on the abuse of
power
◦ Open civil society – allows citizens to lead private
lives and mass media to operate independently from
government
◦ Civilian control of the military – restricts the
likelihood of the military taking control of the
government
Democratization

LIBERAL DEMOCRACIES (continued)
◦ Also called substantive democracies
Substantive democracies – citizens have
access to multiple sources of information
Democratization

ILLIBERAL DEMOCRACIES – have
democratic procedures in place but have
significant restrictions on them
◦ Also called procedural democracies
◦ ex. Rule of law may be in place but it is not
followed consistently by those who are in
power
◦ Presidents often hold disproportionate share
of power and the legislatures are less able to
check executive power.
Democratization

ILLIBERAL DEMOCRACIES (continued)
◦ Elections lack true competitiveness. Political
parties and interest groups are restricted.
◦ Some political theorists do not view them at
all as democracies, they prefer to refer to the
system as “electoral authoritarianism”
Democratization

The presence of a procedural democracy
is a necessary condition for the
development of substantive democracy,
but many procedural democracies do not
qualify as substantive democracies
because they are missing the other
necessary characteristics
Fareed Zakaria

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDoU
HECxwFY
Illiberal Democracy and Vladimir
Putin’s Russia
Why has democratization occurred?

The 3rd wave of democratization at
present (Samuel Huntington)
◦ Began in 1970s
◦ First wave the gradual historical developments
over time (think Magna Carta)
◦ Second wave after WWII until the 1960s –
the period of de-colonization
Why has democratization occurred?

The 3rd wave of democratization
◦ Began with end of dictatorial regimes
beginning in the 1970s in South America, in
Eastern Europe in early 1990s (there was
some change in the 1980s, ex. Poland), and
some parts of Africa throughout this time
period
Why has democratization occurred?

Again, according to S. Huntington – the 3rd
wave of democratization occurred because
1. Both right and left wing authoritarian regimes
have lost legitimacy
2. There has been an expansion of the urban
middle class in developing countries
3. There has been a new emphasis on human
rights by the US and EU
4. There has been a snowball effect – when one
country in a region becomes democratic it
influences others to do so as well.
Democratic Consolidation
An authoritarian regime may transition to
a democratic one as a result of a “trigger
event,” such as an economic crisis or a
military defeat.
 It may have a gradual transition caused by
political discontent “the revolution of
rising expectations”

 fueled by a period of relative improvement in
the standard of living
Democratic Consolidation

The changes that occur because of this may not
necessarily be democratic

system changes to a democratic one only when the ruling elite
accept to share power with the people and the people are willing
to participate and support the process – DEMOCRATIC
CONSOLIDATION
 Democratic consolidation creates a stable political system that
is supported by all parts of the society. All institutions and
many people participate so that democracy penetrates political
parties, the judiciary and the bureaucracy. The military
cooperates with political leaders and subordinates its will to
the democratically-based government
 A state that progresses from a procedural democracy to a
substantive democracy through democratic consolidation is said
to experience POLITICAL LIBERALIZATION – it is now
a liberal democracy.
What is the greatest obstacle to
democratization?

Discuss
http://techtv.mit.edu/videos/16649-theinteraction-between-poverty-growth-anddemocracy
Move toward market economies

Market economies characterized by
economic liberalism
Market economy – right to own property;
private industry; competition and profit not
controlled by government
Economic liberalism – economic
freedoms; economic goals should be free of
government interference
Move toward market economies
Political scientists examine the
relationship between marketization and
democratization
 Disagreement if there is causation

◦ Often the two are found together
◦ Mexico – exemption. Moved toward market
economy in the 1980s and democratization
followed in the late 1980s
◦ China – exemption. Moving toward capitalism
since late 1970s and there is no sign of
democratization
Move toward market economies

Liberalism – ideas that began in the 19th
century. Liberals supported political and
economic freedoms; they were the
bourgeoisie
Bourgeoisie – middle class professionals or
businessmen who wanted their views to be
represented in government and their economic
goals to be unhampered by government
interference. Believed in political freedoms – of
religion, press, assembly – and the rule of law, and
economic freedoms such as the right to own
private property, free trade with low or no tariffs.
Move toward market economies

Radicals - believed that liberals accepted too much
inequality in their society as long as they had their
rights. Radicals emphasized equality more than
liberty.
Karl Marx – a radical whose came up with theories of
communism applied in communist countries of the 20th
century.
 Communist countries – in order to achieve more equality,
these countries relied on command economy


Command economy – government owns almost all industries and
sales outlets. Based on socialist principles of centralized planning,
quota-setting, and state ownership so that economy is managed by a
party-dominated state planning committee which produces detailed
blueprints for economic production and distribution, often in the
form of five-year plans.
Move toward market economies

All societies of the 21st century are
moving toward market economies
Market economies – based on private
ownership of property and little interference
from government regulation
Economic liberalization – the process of
limiting the power of the state over private
property and market forces
Move toward market economies

What type of market economy will be
more successful, a mixed economy or a
pure market economy?
Mixed economy – allows for significant
control from the central government
Move toward market economies

Factors that promoted the movement
toward market economies
(marketization):
1) Belief that the government is too big –
reaction to command economies where the
government, in order to take care of all
issues in the economy grew in size. In the
1980s during a time of economic stagnation,
in the US and other western countries there
were anti-big government movements as a
solution out of the economic problems.
Move toward market economies

Factors that promoted the movement toward
market economies (marketization):
2) Lack of success of command economies –
once the Soviet Union collapsed, Eastern
European countries moved their economies away
from command towards market economies; the
Soviet Union was seen as proof of the
ineffectiveness of the command economy model.
China, a big command economy that was almost
near economic collapse in the 1970s, infused
capitalism into its system that is today an
economically successful socialist market
economy.
Move toward market economies
Marketization- a state’s re-creation of
its market system where property, labor,
goods and services function in a
competitive environment to determine
their value.
 Privatization- the transfer of state
owned property to private ownership

Move toward market economies

A disadvantage of the free market economy is
that it goes through cycles of prosperity and
scarcity
◦ Recessions – small market downturns
◦ Depressions – big market downturns
But the market will correct itself eventually following
the adjustment of supply and demand.
Because of this, most countries have opted for the
mixed economy model.
Mixed economy – more government involvement
than in a market economy but less control than in a
command economy
Move toward market economies
COMMAND
MIXED
MARKET
ECONOMY
ECONOMY
ECONOMY
Restricted
rights to
own property.
All
industry owned by
the government
Competition
and profit
Elements of
command and
market
economies are
present (mixed)
Guaranteed
right to
own property.
Most
industry is
owned by private
individuals
are prohibited
Competition
and
profit are not
controlled by the
government
More centralization
Less centralization
Revival of Ethnic or Cultural Politics
Fragmentation – divisions based on
ethnic or cultural identity
 Dominant focus of the 21st century is the
politicization of religion

◦ in the United States
◦ In the Middle East