Race and Athletic Identity
Louis Harrison, Jr., Associate Professor
The University of Texas at Austin
Gary Sailes, Associate Professor
Indiana University
Willy K. Rotich, Doctoral Candidate
The University of Texas at Austin
Why Study Race?
Race is a prominent organizing
principal in memory
categorization (Hewstone, Hantzi, &
Johnston, 1991)
Race is a social variable that
denotes a common sociopolitical history (LaVeist, 1996).
People of different
races:
experience different
world views
experience different
opportunities
take on different
identities and status
demonstrate different
behavior
Development of Competence
Possess and
display abilities or
skills, then
construct
perception of
competence from
knowledge of
exhibited skills
Perception of
competence may
organize actions
to attain desired
abilities even
when the skill is
not present initially
Perceptions serve as a catalyst to develop skills
and abilities viewed as self-defining.
(Cross & Markus, 1994; Markus, Cross, & Wurf, 1990)
Race-Sport Research
Different perceptions of suitability for sport
activities (AA basketball, football, track,
etc.) (Harrison, 1999).
Strong evidence for the persistence of
racial stereotypes in sport (Harrison, 2001; Hodge
et al., in press; Sheldon, Epstein & Petty, 2007)
Endorsement of self-descriptive
information for sport and by race
Lee, & Belcher, 1999).
(Harrison,
Race-Sport Research
Expectations, practice frequency and
aspirations in sport differ by race
(Harrison, Lee, & Belcher, 1999).
EAs steered away from high level
sport aspirations (Harrison, Azzarito, & Burden,
2004).
Years of speculation and theorizing
regarding the “natural abilities of AA
athletes have forged the thinking of
entire populations (Hoberman, 1997)
Race-Sport Research
It is unlikely that a uni-dimensional
theory will account for the disparity
in sport performance and
participation between A A and EA
athletes.
Differences in levels of athletic
identity adds still another dimension
to this complex dialogue.
Athletic Identity
The degree to which an individual
identifies with the athletic role.
Individuals make a social statement
about themselves by choosing to
engage in particular sport or physical
activities (Brewer, Raalte, & Linder, 1993)
Athletic Identity
Benefits
Development of a salient self-identity
and confidence building
Positive effect on athletic
performance
Narrowing of external activities to
focus on athletic performance
Athletic Identity
Potential Risks
Difficulties dealing with sport
career or status changes
Emotional difficulties in
dealing with injuries
Difficulty adjusting after the
end of the athletic career
because of a lack of other
sources of self-worth
Less likely to include alternate
career or educational options
(Booby Myles)
Method
109 NCAA Division I football athletes
from a large predominantly White
southeastern U.S. university.
The athletes’ self identified racial
categorization was 67 African
Americans and 42 Caucasian
Americans.
Administered the Athletic Identity
Measurement Scale (AIMS) (Brewer et al.,
1993)
1
Strongly
Disagree
2
Disagree
AIMS
3
Uncertain
4
Agree
5
Strongly
Agree
1. I consider myself an athlete.
2. I have many goals related to sport.
3. Most of my friends are athletes.
4. Sport is the most important part of my life.
5. I spend more time thinking about sport than anything else.
6. I need to participate in sport to feel good about myself.
7. Other people see me mainly as an athlete.
8. I feel bad about myself when I do poorly in sport.
9. Sport is the only important thing in my life.
10. I would be very depressed if I were injured and could not
compete in sport.
ANOVA
Analysis of Variance for
Athletic Identity Total
Score
Source
Btwn Grps
Wthn Grps
df
Mn Sq
F
1
7.901
6.156
104 133.495 1.284
Total
105 141.396
p
0.015
AIMS Results
5
4.5
*
4
3.5
*
3
2.5
Af. Am.
Eu. Am.
*
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Discussion
These results point to another socio-cultural
factor in the race/athletic performance
debate
Since AI is important in performance (Horton &
Mack, 2000), racial differences in AI should be
considered factors in performance
differences
The AIMS items that display significant
differences are notable.
– 5. I spend more time thinking about sport than
anything else.
– 7. Other people see me mainly as an athlete.
– 9. Sport is the only important thing in my life.
Discussion
#5 - I spend more time thinking
about sport than anything else.
Suggest that AA athletes had more
internal focus on their sport
– Complexity of football makes focus
necessary to recognize and react
– Possibly more mental rehearsal
Discussion
#7 - Other people see me mainly as
an athlete.
Conspicuous in PWU; large body
– Value at game time; handicap in class
Unfavorable faculty attitudes
(Baucom &
Lantz, 2001; Engstrom, Sedlacek, & McEwen, 1995)
Unfavorable peer academic attitudes
(Engstrom & Sedlacek, 1991; Sailes, 1993; Simons et al., 2007)
Damaging to the athletes self esteem
and academic identity
Discussion
#9 - Sport is the only important
thing in my life.
Lowest score but most prominent
difference
Identity foreclosure - making a
commitment to identity role without
exploring other role possibilities
(Murphy, Petitpas, & Brewer, 1996; Lally & Kerr, 2005)
Confluence of Influence on Af. Am.
Athletic Identity Development
Home
School
Community
Media
Peer Culture
Radial Identity
Athletic Identity
Stereotypes
History
Dominant Culture
Suggestions
Frank discussions of race to
dispel myths and stereotypes
Don’t channel African
American males away from
sport; socialize investment in
education with the same
enthusiasm.
Challenge the beliefs of all
stake holders
Highlight African American
athletes’ success in the
academic realm
(Paul Robeson; RRM)
Pinar (1994)
We say "we are what we know." But, we
are also what we do not know. If what we
know about ourselves--our history, our
culture--is distorted by delusions and
denials, then our identity--as individuals,
as Americans--is distorted (p. 245).
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