Asian American Literature; as it pertains to the
theories of W.E.B Dubois’ “Double
Consciousness” and Edward Said’s
“Orientalism.”
Jessica Stone
HCOM 322
Professor Wang
Spring 2008
How does Asian American literature reflect the
theories of W.E.B Dubois’ “Double
Consciousness” and Edward Said’s “Orientalism?”
Orientalism
Palestinian anthropologist,
Edward Said, made his life
work to educate others on
issues surrounding cultural
identity. Considered one of
the most influential works
of the twentieth century,
Said’s intensive study
Orientalism, delves into the
dimensions of socially
constructed Asian
stereotypes.
Socially Constructed “Orientalism”
He claims that the mystical allure of
the “orient” is essentially a “European
invention” (Said 1). Though this has
changed to some degree, the typecasts
that were formed have remained in
the perception of Western thought.
“I shall be calling Orientalism, a way
of coming to term with the Orient
that is based on the Orient’s special
place in European Western
Experience” (Said 1).
For centuries, the West has used the
term “Orient” to dominate the Asian
region. By placing such dramatic
emphasis on the differences between
the East and West, “Orientalism” has
manifested into what Said declares an
“enormously systematic discipline by
which European culture was able to
manage- and even produce- the
Orient politically, sociologically,
militarily, ideologically, scientifically,
and imaginatively” (Said 3). By this
creation of sorts, Westerners have
tried to control their eastern
counterpart.
Because history is a interpretation of
man, “Occident” and “Orient” are
entirely subjective, but have somehow
developed into ideas that produce
human classification. Said accentuates
this subjugation, “The world is made
up of two unequal halves, Orient and
Occident” (Said 12). “Orientalism” is
for the most part, a political
apparatus- that gives Western
Colonialism greater leverage.
The racist creed of such notions as,
Asian female passivity and
submissiveness, have only endured
because Western perception has
enabled it- for the sake of the political
interest of attaining superiority.
M Butterfly
David Henry Hwang’s tragedy, M
Butterfly, suggests that life is not
always as it seems, and its elusive
nature can often cause the most dire
conditions amongst mankind. Inspired
by true events; French diplomat,
Rene Gallimard, falls in love with a
Chinese opera singer, of whom has
concealed his true identity, in order to
portray himself as a woman named
Song Liling.
Love blinds Gallimard’s sense of
reality, but also his own psyche. He
seemingly falls in love with Song as an
individual, but actually falls in love
with an image. The image that Song so
deceptively presented, was one of a
submissive woman, whose values of
great modesty made her even more
desirable to Gallimard’s lustful
imagination.
Gallimard’s obsession with this image,
leads him to spend nearly twenty years
in a relationship of whimsical fantasy.
His yearning and constant desire for
Song, are placed above logical reason.
Song acts as the catalyst of Gallimard’s
demise, but one cannot overlook
Gallimard’s contribution to the tragic
outcome himself. Because he held such
an extreme fascination with her role as
the “ideal woman,” he blatantly fell into
his own defeat, in realizing that his love
had been not for Song, but for a mere
guise. Once he becomes aware of the
deception, it is already too late to regain
his integrity. Gallimard’s recognition
occurs in the final scene, where he
dresses himself as Song, before slitting
his throat with a broken mirror.
Executing the reflection of his frailty, he
dies brokenhearted and deceived.
Perhaps Gallimard is motivated to
commit suicide from his pain of the
terrible revelation; or perhaps by
taking Song’s fabricated form before
ending his life, he symbolically accepts
his involvement with the dramatic
action. However, it is possible that in
disguising himself as Song, he
representatively kills the persona, that
was in part self- composed.
The use of the mirror furthers this
argument; the mirror (as the
conflicted reflection of both the inner
and outer self), is in essence the very
cause of his failure.
How “Orientalism” and “Double Consciousness” are Applied to
M Butterfly
To Rene Gallimard, Song is the
embodiment of ideal womanhood.
Her submissive and delicate nature, is
at the core of “Orientalism.” Said
describes this male sexual invention of
Asian women, that further
disconnects the “Orient” with reality,
“the Oriental woman; she never spoke
of herself, she never represented her
emotions, presence, or history. He
spoke for and represented her. (Said
6).
Gallimard’s “tragic flaw” is that
he is blinded with the
fascination of “Orientalism.”
Because he cannot see past the
obvious, he becomes captive to the
obsessive belief in Song’s image. Song
is struggling with what W.E.B Dubois
labeled as, “Double Consciousness.”
On the one hand, Song is an Asian
male, and on the other he is a woman
named Song Liling. Song acts as the
epitome of what “Orientalism” has
instilled in her. Never outspoken,
fragile as glass, and containing the
most traditional ideal of Oriental
beauty, Song views herself through
two personas.
W.E.B Dubois’ “Double Consciousness” from The Souls of Black
Folk.
W. E. B. Dubois’ sociological book, The
Souls of Black Folk, originated the “double
consciousness theory.” Being the first African
American to graduate from Harvard
University, Dubois knew well the struggle of
overcoming oppression. He examines the
mindset of his own race, finding that the black
identity is seen not only by the individual, but
by the individual looking at himself through
the eyes of others. One part of him being a
black man, and the other being an individual,
creates a subconscious double consciousness.
Constantly aware of his skin color, he feels that
he must repeatedly prove his self worth.
“It is a particular sensation, this double consciousness, this sense of always
looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul
by the tape of the world that looks on in amused contempt and pity.
One ever feels his twoness,- an American, a Negro; two souls, two
thoughts, two un-reconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark
body” (Dubois 215).
No-No Boy
John Okada’s No-No Boy takes the
reader to World War II America,
where the Japanese were marginalized
for their heritage. Ichiro, a young
Japanese man, just recently freed
from prison for answering “no” to
both questions on the United States
loyalty questionnaire, attempts to
regain his pride as a free man.
Grasping for his identity, Ichiro
realizes that he is a man without a
country. Not having any ties beyond
his blood line to Japan, but being
considered a traitor to America; he
desperately strives to redeem himself.
“Double Consciousness” and No- No Boy
This goal of redemption causes him to
live each day with a “double
consciousness.” In every action he
makes, he sees himself as a Japanese
traitor on the one hand, but a loyal
American on the other.
Okada describes Ichiro’s self scrutiny
as, “he felt like an intruder in a world
to which he had no claim” (Okada 1).
Refusing to forgive himself, Ichiro
wanders his hometown streets in
search of some form of solace. The
constant reminder that he is a traitor,
or he is Japanese, or he is an
American; is exactly the same type of
condition Dubois depicts in The Soul of
Black Folk. It seems that in this
mindset, there is no blending of the
different aspects of oneself- but
rather, a constant shift from one guise
to the next. The perpetual impact that
this has on the soul of one’s character
is immense. The end of No-No Boy,
represents in some obscure way, the
hope needed to overcome this “double
consciousness” that rips the psyche
and spirit apart.
“Double Consciousness” and African American Literature
Toni Morrison’s The Bluest Eye, is a
story about a young girl named
Pecola, who dreams of having blue
eyes, like those of child icon, Shirley
Temple. With blue eyes, Pecola
assumes that she would be treated
better, and considered prettier.
“It had occurred to Pecola some time
ago that if her eyes, those eyes that
held the pictures, and knew the
sights—if those eyes of hers were
different, that is to say, beautiful, she
herself would be different.” (38)
Morrison exposes the raw dimensions
of Dubois’ “double consciousness,”
and how the affects begin to take
form during the early stages of
childhood. The awareness makes them
feel as though they need to
overcompensate for their complexion,
and this leads to terrible psychological
stress.
Come See the Paradise
Come See the Paradise follows the love story of Jack McGurn and Lily Kawamura,
through the tragedies of World War II abroad and on American soil. Though the
Kawamura family considered themselves Americans, they were held as prisoners by
the government, in Japanese internment camps. Lily, being a Nisei, or second
generation, had never even been to Japan. The dramatic shift of identity, from
American to Japanese, caused Lily to experience “double consciousness.”
Racial Stereotypes
Throughout the plot, it is evident that the most central theme is the
overcoming of racial stereotyping. The relationship between Jack and Lily, is initially
unaccepted by the Kawamura family. Lily’s father is particularly against the union;
and tries to hinder it from the beginning. It is only near the end of her father’s life,
that he consents to their love for each other. In a moment that is emotionally
compelling, Jack asks her father what he can do for them and he replies, “Just love
Lily. That's enough.” In those few words, he breaks the cycle of his own
discrimination, symbolically acknowledging Jack’s unconditional love for his
daughter.
Acculturation
Acculturation is prevalent
throughout the film, and most
commonly seen by the
Kawamura family’s struggle.
To prove that they were
Americans, they broke
Japanese records, and signed
loyalty papers.Yet, at the same
time- they attempted to hold
onto some parts of their native
culture, and resisted the
complete detachment from
their lineage.
Lily’s characterization and “Orientalism”
• Lily’s characterization is depicted as
being vulnerable and docile, a trait of
stereotypical oriental femininity, until
she gains her voice through the
experience of living in the internment
camp. From her makeup, to
mannerisms, she is made to appear
like the portrait of the “ideal woman.”
Much like Song Liling from M
Butterfly, she feels obliged to
accentuate this persona.
A Voice in Every Wind
Qun Wang’s AVoice in EveryWind, is a collection of short stories told by
separate narrators, that interweave to form a single unified voice. From multiple
timeframes, each character, has an experience that brings forth personal
enlightenment. All of the stories are told through the viewpoint of Chinese
exchange students, that are attempting to find their true identity in America. The
contact that they have with such a sexually explicit American culture, changes their
traditional values. The sexual encounters metaphorically liberate them, from the
binds of Communist China’s control.
“Angels of the Magpie Bridge”
Lu Ping from “Angels of the Magpie
Bridge” is employed by his university
as a translator for the American
exchange students. Throughout the
plot, he slowly becomes more and
more drawn to their attitudes
concerning sexual freedom. His
identity splits and he gains “double
consciousness.” One part of his soul
belongs to the Chinese moral codes,
and the other part desires to be as
uninhibited as they appear.
“He envied those who were courageous enough to destroy
man-made barriers that turned people into civilized
strangers. Every time he got a hug from an American
student, it had a tingling effect on him. A warm current
would charge through his body, giving him a sensation he
could only experience in dreams” (Wang 4).
Confucianism
Wang speaks of Confucianism in his
article, “Double Consciousness,”
Sociological Imagination, and the
Asian American Experience. ”
Illustrating the role that Confucianism
has upon all aspects of Chinese culture
and lifestyle, he bares the composition
of its “harmony;”
“But the kind of “harmony” Confucius
had envisioned was built on the feudal
ethical code of the three cardinal
guides (ruler guides subject, father
guides son, and husband guides wife)
and the five constant virtues
(benevolence, righteousness,
propriety, wisdom and fidelity) and its
infrastructure supported by patriarchy
and primogeniture” (Wang 91).
Lu Ping, being one of several
tormented by “double consciousness”
in AVoice in EveryWind, has been bred
with the principles of Confucianism.
The strong hold that this has upon
him, in particular, poses even greater
challenges to the transition.
America is in the Heart
Carlos Bulosan made the voyage from
the Philippines to America in 1930, in
search of a better life. As a son of
Filipino farmers, he knew well the
struggle of making a living wage in
the Philippines. The ideals of America
had long been instilled in his mind.
He had great hopes of a promising
future, when he landed in Seattle at
the age of seventeen. His youthful
anticipations however, were met with
a terrifying reality, one of which came
to be his greatest inspiration as a
writer.
Racism
• Immediately after his arrival, Bulosan realized that being Filipino in America was
considered a crime. In the 1930s, American society blatantly marginalized those of
Asian decent. Because of this bigotry, Filipinos were forced to the agricultural fields
of California where they could find work. They were used by the system and paid
unjustly, leading Bulosan to become the voice of all those who he worked amongst.
America is in the Heart is an autobiography of Bulosan’s experience. The honesty and
sincerity in his writings, have acted as a meta-narrative for all those who have
personally endured similar hardships. Provoking his audience to social recognition
and change, Bulosan has become a literary hero for all those who have faced
adversity.
Bulosan: “hyphenated American.”
Dr. Qun Wang’s article, “Double
Consciousness,” Sociological Imagination,
and the Asian American Experience, ”
explains how being a “hyphenated
American” with “double consciousness”
actually can be seen as both “the source for
stress and creativity” (Wang 91). Bulosan
used writing as his creative outlet, to
express the turmoil he endured. In a scene
where Bulosan is working in the Opal
Café’s bakery, a business man began
mocking him for reading. With diplomacy
and tact, he tries to veer the man away
from a confrontation; but, he tirelessly
provokes Bulosan into a physical
argument. With blood covering his face,
and hiding in a dark alley, he questions
what he has become…
“I tried to find a justification for my sudden rebellion- why was it so
sudden, and black, and hateful. Was it possible that, coming to
America with certain illusions of equality, I had slowly succumbed to
the hypnotic effects of racial fear?” (Bulosan 164).
The land that was meant to foster equality and happiness- the dream
that for so long seemed attainable- was suddenly slipping away, as he
was- into a deeper state of “double consciousness.”
“To understand Asian American literature in the
postcolonial period is, indeed, to resist the temptation of
totalization, to accept the plurality of the Asian American
experience, and to appreciate Asian American writers’
effort to democratize American literary voice by
(representing what has been mis(sing)- represented, by
celebrating the cultural diversity of American society, and
by calling readers’ attention to the peculiarity and
uniqueness of the Asian American experience” (Wang 93).