Early SLA Studies
SLA emerged in the 1940s and 1950s. First topic
of study: Contrastive Analysis.
Journals on language learning (as opposed to
language teaching) began to be published at this
time.
University of Michigan
important. English
Language Institute, Charles Fries, Director, 1941.
Language Learning, University of Michigan, 1948.
Betty Wallace Robinett, Editor.
SLA emerges at a moment of transition for some
scholars, from language teaching, to language
learning.
1
Contrastive Analysis, History
Sir William Jones, India, 1786.
Proposed that Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek shared a
common source. Cf. Proto Indo-European / “proto”
language studies.
Methodologically, Jones searched Sanskrit, Latin,
and Greek for ways the languages were similar
and different. In comparing and contrasting these
languages, Jones engaged in the first documented
study of “contrastive analysis.”
2
Contrastive Analysis, History
Proto Indo-European
P.I.E.
*pater- *mater-
*swesor-
*bhrater- *dhugheter *sunu- *widhewa
Modern Englishfather
mother
sister
brother
daughter
son
widow
OLD ENGLISH faeder
modor
sweostor
brothor
dohtor
sunu
widuwe
GERMAN
Vater
Mutter
Schwester Bruder
Tochter
Sohn
Wittwe
LATIN
GREEK
pater
pater
mater
meter
soror
------
frater
phrater
-----thugater
-----huios
vidua
------
RUSSIAN
------
mat'
sestra
brat
------
syn
vdova
SANSKRIT
pitar
matar
svasar
bhratar
duhitar
sunu
widuwe
SPANISH
padre
madre
------
------
hija
hijo
viuda
FRENCH
pere
mere
soeur
frere
----
veuve
3
Contrastive Analysis
Meanwhile, back at the University of Michigan,
contrastive analysis relative to SLA was defined as:
“A scientific description of the language to be
learned, carefully compared with a parallel
description of the native language of the learner”
(Lado, 1957, p. 1).
Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan.
4
Contrastive Analysis
From the beginning, particular interest was given to
areas where the first language seemed to
“interfere” with the target language, hence
“interference.”
“Individuals tend to transfer the forms and
meanings, and the distribution of forms and
meanings of their native language and culture to
the foreign language and culture” (p. 2).
5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Contrastive Analysis
Examine how Contrastive Analysis works:
areas of analysis
Examine the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
Consider the purpose of Contrastive Analysis
Engage in Contrastive Analysis
Examine the eclipse of Contrastive Analysis;
consider the epistemological orientation of
Contrastive Analysis.
6
Contrastive Analysis
Lado’s table of contents. How to compare two …
• sound systems
• grammatical structures
• vocabulary systems
• writing systems
• cultures
How indeed?
7
Contrastive Analysis – Sound Systems
1.presence or absence of sounds (phonemes)
Spanish lacks / v /, / ð /, / z /, / š /, / ž /, / ǰ /.
2.classification of sounds (phonemes, distinctive; v.
allophones, nondistinctive)
English: [pʰæt] v. [pæt]
same or different?Same
Hindi: [pʰəl] v. [pəl]
same or different?
Different: [pʰəl] = “fruit”; [pəl] = “moment”
8
Contrastive Analysis – Sound Systems
2. classification of sounds (phonemes, distinctive;
v. allophones, nondistinctive)
In Japanese phonetics, would we write
/ l / and / r /, or
[ l ] and [ r ] ?
Why? Because these sounds are nondistinctive
in Japanese, they are allophones of the same
phonemes, hence the bad Hollywood
stereotypes of Japanese speech:
[lays] and [rays] = “lice” and “rice.”
9
Contrastive Analysis – Sound Systems
3. distribution (location in word) of sounds
English and French both have the phoneme
/ ž /.
“pleasure” / “jamais”
How is the sound distributed (located) differently
in each language?
In English words, / ž / never occurs syllable
initial (distinguished from words borrowed from
French, like “Jacques”).
10
Contrastive Analysis – Sound Systems
4. vowel length
German does not distinguish between
/ ɪ /, the lax, high-front vowel: “bit” and
/ i /, the tense, high-front vowel: “beat.”
5. Other sound differences discussed by Lado:
stress
rhythm
intonation
pitch
“tones”
6. Other sound contrasts?
11
Contrastive Analysis – Grammatical Structures
1. Word order
Where do we place the adjective in English and
French?
The red house
La maison rouge.
2. case, tense, gender, inflections (morphology)
How do we make plurals?
babies
(English)
baby
enfant
enfants
(French)
anak
anak-anak
(Malay; “reduplication”)
12
Contrastive Analysis – Grammatical Structures
3. functions: question formation, classifiers, etc.
“five cigarettes” English
“lima batang rokok” Malay (five small cylindrical
things cigarette)
13
Contrastive Analysis – Vocabulary Systems
Cognates
Cognate are words that have a common origin and
have similar forms / meanings across languages.
“Cognate” derives from Latin cognatus, from co
(with) +gnatus, natus, past participle of nascor “to
be born.” Literally it means “related by blood,
having a common ancestor, or related by an
analogous nature, character, or function.”
night (English) and nacht (German)
shalom (Hebrew) and salaam (Arabic): “peace”
14
Contrastive Analysis – Vocabulary Systems
“False Friends”
Pairs of words in two languages that look and/or
sound similar, but differ in meaning. They may be
cognates (but also may not be); if so, meaning has
diverged:
“attendre” French, to wait
“attend” English, to participate
“nova”
English, spectacular star; Chevy
“nova”
Spanish, not a good name for a car
Other examples?
15
Contrastive Analysis – Writing Systems
1. Languages may use the same writing system.
Roman alphabet: English, Malay, others?
2. Or the same writing system with minor
differences.
There are a few diacritics in the French roman
alphabet: è, é, ç
16
Contrastive Analysis – Writing Systems
There are a
great many
diacritics in
the
Vietnamese
roman
alphabet.
17
Contrastive Analysis – Writing Systems
3. Language may add (or subtract) letters to / from
the Roman alphabet.
Icelandic adds the Ð / ð (eth) and Þ / þ (thorn)
for the voiced / less interdental fricative.
18
Contrastive Analysis – Writing Systems
4. Languages
may use
different
alphabets.
English and
Cyrillic are
somewhat
different.
19
Contrastive Analysis – Writing Systems
Khmer is dramatically different, but still an alphabet.
20
Contrastive Analysis – Writing Systems
5. Chinese is not
an alphabet,
but a
logographic
system, in
which each
symbol
represents an
idea.
21
Contrastive Analysis – Culture
Different rhetorical structures – ways of organizing
thoughts / expository material per culture /
language.
Contrastive rhetoric: Kaplan, R. (1966). Cultural
thought patterns in intercultural education.
Language Learning 16(1): 1–20.
22
Contrastive Analysis – Hypothesis
Lado’s and others’ contrastive analyses (note: he
doesn’t give us any data; this is not a “study” as
defined by this class) led him to formulate the
“contrastive analysis hypothesis”, CAH:
“Those elements that are similar to [a learner’s]
native language will be simple for him [or her], and
those elements that are different will be difficult”
(Lado, p. 2).
This is the “strong” version of the CAH:
Contrastive analysis has predictive power.
Through contrastive analysis, we can predict areas
of difficulty (and vice versa) for our students.
23
Contrastive Analysis – Purpose
Predicting areas of difficulty will allow teachers to
facilitate second language learning through
informed attention to materials, tests, classroom
activities and so on – “to find [and address] the
hurdles that really have to be surmounted in the
teaching” (Lado, p. 3).
Exercise: In groups, do a contrastive analysis of
English with another language. Include contrasts
for each of the topic areas we have discussed:
writing systems
sound systems
cultures
grammatical structures
vocabulary systems
24
Contrastive Analysis – Eclipse
Contrastive analysis fell out of favor for 3 reasons:
1. Teachers did not know that languages of their
students and, and could not do extensive
contrastive analyses.
How many languages spoken in a typical public
school classroom?
25
Contrastive Analysis – Eclipse
Contrastive analysis fell out of favor for 3 reasons:
2. The strong version of the CAH didn’t work.
When the CAH was tested empirically, its
predictive value was proved inaccurate.
What would CAH predict about native English
speakers learning to pronounce French words?
Specifically, about words beginning with / ž /?
Recall that in English words, / ž / never occurs
word-initial.
Answer: it would be difficult for native English
speakers to pronounce words that begin / ž /.
Is this true? Do we have trouble w/ “Jacques”?
26
Contrastive Analysis – Eclipse
3. CAH fell victim to an epistemological shift in SLA
research. Of the two ways of understanding
language acquisition (behaviorism v. nativism),
which best fits CA?
“Before any of the questions of how to teach a
foreign language must come the much more
important preliminary work of finding the special
problems arising out of any effort to develop a
new set of language habits against a
background of different native language habits”
(foreword by Fries).
27
Contrastive Analysis – Eclipse
3. CAH fell victim to an epistemological shift in SLA
research. Of the two ways of understanding
language acquisition (behaviorism v. nativism),
which best fits CA?
“Before any of the questions of how to teach a
foreign language must come the much more
important preliminary work of finding the special
problems arising out of any effort to develop a
new set of language habits against a
background of different native language habits”
(foreword by Fries).
28
Contrastive Analysis – Eclipse
3. CAH fell victim to an epistemological shift in SLA
research. Of the two ways of understanding
language acquisition (behaviorism v. nativism),
which best fits CA?
“The basic problems arise not out of any
essential difficulty in the features of the new
language themselves but primarily out of the
special ‘set’ created by the first language habits”
(foreword by Fries).
29
Contrastive Analysis – Eclipse
3. CAH fell victim to an epistemological shift in SLA
research. Of the two ways of understanding
language acquisition (behaviorism v. nativism),
which best fits CA?
“The basic problems arise not out of any
essential difficulty in the features of the new
language themselves but primarily out of the
special ‘set’ created by the first language habits”
(foreword by Fries).
30
Contrastive Analysis – Eclipse
3. CAH fell victim to an epistemological shift in SLA
research. Of the two ways of understanding
language acquisition (behaviorism v. nativism),
which best fits CA?
“Research in the psychology of language and in
language learning in psychology has not as a
rule made any conscious systematic use of
assumptions of importance of the native
language habits in foreign language learning”
(Lado, p. 2).
31
Contrastive Analysis – Eclipse
3. CAH fell victim to an epistemological shift in SLA
research. Of the two ways of understanding
language acquisition (behaviorism v. nativism),
which best fits CA?
“Research in the psychology of language and in
language learning in psychology has not as a
rule made any conscious systematic use of
assumptions of importance of the native
language habits in foreign language learning”
(Lado, p. 2).
Answer: Behaviorism. CA is deeply rooted in
the belief that (second) language learning is a
process of habit formation.
32
Contrastive Analysis – Eclipse
3. CAH fell victim to an epistemological shift in SLA
research. Of the two ways of understanding
language acquisition (behaviorism v. nativism),
which best fits CA?
Extending theories of first language acquisition
to the process of second language acquisition,
early SLA scholars adopted Skinnerian
behaviorism as their epistemological orientation.
As thinking in first language acquisition shifted
to language learning as a process of rule
formation, interest waned in CA in SLA – how to
facilitate the development of new language
habits.
33
Contrastive Analysis – Weak Version
Contrastive analysis remains an influential construct
in SLA, in its weak version: using comparisons of
languages to explain (not predict) areas of difficulty
for learners.
Next: Error Analysis and new ways of
understanding SLA.
34
Review
Interest in SLA emerged during a moment of
transition for some scholars, from language
teaching, to language learning.
The field also emerged during a moment of
epistemological transition among scholars of first
language acquisition, from behaviorism to nativism.
And from a view of language acquisition as a
process or habit formation to language acquisition
as a process of rule formation.
language teaching
language learning
nativism
behaviorism
rule formation
habit formation
35
Error Analysis
Error Analysis
Contrastive Analysis
Corder, S.P. (1967). The significance of learner’s
errors. International Review of Applied
Linguistics, 5, 161–170.
1. Locate Corder’s argument
2. Define error analysis
3. Identify innovative concepts in error analysis
4. Examine a taxonomy of errors
5. Consider the purpose of error analysis
6. Engage in error analysis.
7. Understand the eclipse of error analysis.
36
Error Analysis
Error Analysis
Contrastive Analysis
Corder, S.P. (1967). The significance of learner’s
errors. International Review of Applied
Linguistics, 5, 161–170.
To begin, note how Corder locates his argument
relative to the transitions we have discussed:
37
Error Analysis
“Both linguistics and psychology are in a state at the
present time of what Chomsky has called ‘flux and
agitation.’ What seemed to be well established
doctrine a few years ago is now the subject of
extensive debate. The consequence of this for
language teaching is likely to be far reaching and
we are perhaps only now beginning to feel its
effects. One effect has been perhaps to shift the
emphasis away from a preoccupation with teaching
toward a study of learning. [T]his has shown itself
as a renewed attack upon the problem [of] the
acquisition of the mother tongue” (p. 163).
language learning
language teaching
38
Error Analysis
“The most widespread hypothesis about how
languages are learned [is] behaviourist” (p. 163).
“The new hypothesis [on the other hand] states that
a human infant is born with an innate predisposition
to acquire language; that he must be exposed to
language for the acquisition process to start; that he
possesses an internal mechanism of unknown
nature which enables him from the limited date
available to him to construct a grammar of a
particular language” (p. 164).
behaviorism
nativism
39
Error Analysis
“No one expects a child learning his mother-tongue
to produce from the earliest stages only forms which
in adult terms are correct or non-deviant. We
interpret his ‘incorrect’ utterances as being evidence
that he is in the process of acquiring language …
The best evidence that a child possesses
construction rules is the occurrence of systematic
errors, since, when the child speaks correctly, it is
quite possible that he is only repeating something
that he has heard. … It is by reducing the language
to a simpler system than it is that the child reveals
his tendency to induce rules”(p. 165).
habit formation
rule formation
40
Error Analysis
Corder extends the trajectories of first language
acquisition to second language acquisition.
“If the acquisition of the first language is a fulfilment
of the predisposition to develop language behaviour,
then the learning of the second language involves
the replacement of the predisposition of the infant
by some other force” (p. 164).
“I propose therefore as a working hypothesis that
some at least of the strategies adopted by the [SL]
learner are substantially the same as those by
which a first language is acquired” (pp. 164–5).
First language acquisition
SLA
41
Error Analysis: Introduction
In error analysis (EA), scholars approach errors as
evidence that learners are actively engaged in
hypothesis testing / inducing rules.
The study of errors by teachers / researchers can
facilitate learning by identifying where learner are on
their way to full competence in the target language.
In EA, errors are treated productively, as evidence
of learner engagement. Cf. contrastive analysis,
where errors “are ascribed to interference from the
habits of the mother tongue” and are treated as
hurdles to be overcome. In EA, on the other hand,
they are “signs that the learner is investigating the
systems of the new language” (p. 168).
42
Error Analysis: Central Concepts
Mistakes versus Errors
Mistakes are slips of the tongue; they are “products
of chance circumstances” (p. 166); they occur in the
realm / at the level of performance (parole)
Errors are products that “reveal [learners’] underlying knowledge of the language to date, or as we
may call it [their] transitional competence” (p. 166).
Note: performance and competence. Mistakes
happen when we mis-speak. Errors are artifacts of
our competence in language at a given time – from
them, we can infer something of learners’ deep
underlying understanding of the language to date.
43
Error Analysis: Central Concepts
Built-in syllabus
The order in which learners need to learn things –
the “learner-generated sequence” (p. 166).
Note the contrast with the “instructor-generated
sequence” (p. 166).
We will return to this concept in Dulay and Burt and
morpheme acquisition studies.
#
44
Error Analysis: Central Concepts
Transitional Competence
In the process of language acquisition, learners’ use
“a definite system of language at every point in
[their] development, although it is not the adult
system in the one case [i.e., in first language
acquisition], nor that of the second language in the
other [i.e., SLA]. The [learners’] errors are evidence
of this system and are themselves systematic” (p.
166).
We may call learners’ “underlying knowledge of the
language to date [their] transitional competence” (p.
166).
#
45
Error Analysis: Central Concepts
Interlanguage
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International
Review of Applied Linguistics, 10(3), 209–231.
Interlanguage : the “language system that the
learner constructs out of the linguistic data to which
[s/he] has been exposed” (LF&L, p. 60).
At any given moment, the learner will have been
exposed to unique and specific data; will have
induced U / S rules; and will control a U / S
competence in the language. As they learn more,
they progress along the “interlanguage continuum.”
No TL
Full TL
46
Error Analysis: Central Concepts
Interlanguage
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International
Review of Applied Linguistics, 10(3), 209–231.
Interlanguage : the “language system that the
learner constructs out of the linguistic data to which
[s/he] has been exposed” (LF&L, p. 60).
At any given moment, the learner will have been
exposed to unique and specific data; will have
induced U / S rules; and will control a U / S
competence in the language. As they learn more,
they progress along the “interlanguage continuum.”
No TL
Full TL
47
Error Analysis: Central Concepts
Interlanguage
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International
Review of Applied Linguistics, 10(3), 209–231.
Interlanguage : the “language system that the
learner constructs out of the linguistic data to which
[s/he] has been exposed” (LF&L, p. 60).
At any given moment, the learner will have been
exposed to unique and specific data; will have
induced U / S rules; and will control a U / S
competence in the language. As they learn more,
they progress along the “interlanguage continuum.”
No TL
Full TL
48
Error Analysis: Central Concepts
Interlanguage
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International
Review of Applied Linguistics, 10(3), 209–231.
Interlanguage : the “language system that the
learner constructs out of the linguistic data to which
[s/he] has been exposed” (LF&L, p. 60).
At any given moment, the learner will have been
exposed to unique and specific data; will have
induced U / S rules; and will control a U / S
competence in the language. As they learn more,
they progress along the “interlanguage continuum.”
No TL
Full TL
49
Error Analysis: Central Concepts
Interlanguage
Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International
Review of Applied Linguistics, 10(3), 209–231.
Interlanguage : the “language system that the
learner constructs out of the linguistic data to which
[s/he] has been exposed” (LF&L, p. 60).
Halted progress is called “fossilization”: linguistic
items, rules, or subsystems which speakers … tend
to keep in their IL, no matter what the age of the
learner or amount of explanation and instruction”
(Selinker, p. 215).
No TL
Full TL
50
I.
1.
II.
2.
Error Analysis: Taxonomy
Interlingual errors
First language interference (CA re-emerges)
“Is the book of my friend.”
Perhaps interference from a +PD language.
Intralingual errors
Overgeneralization
“I wonder where are you going.”
Overgeneralization of sub – aux inversion for
question formation to incorrect context.
#
51
Error Analysis: Taxonomy
II. Intralingual errors
3. Simplification
“I studied English for two year.”
Removal of perceived redundant morphology –
the plural “s.” [This is a hallmark of pidgin
languages.]
4. Communication based
“Look at the “fire flowers”! (fireworks)
Communication is achieved through creative
word coinage, but resulting word is nonstandard.
#
52
Error Analysis: Taxonomy
II. Intralingual errors
5. Induced errors
“She cries as if a baby” (She cries like a baby).
The teacher has defined “as if” to mean “like,”
but does not explain the grammatical differences
between the two:
as if is a subordinating conjunction that joins two
clauses: “She cries as if she is hurt.”
like is a preposition that should only be followed
by a noun phrase: “She cries like a baby.”
#
53
I.
1.
II.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Error Analysis: Taxonomy
Interlingual errors
First language interference (CA re-emerges)
“Is the book of my friend.”
Intralingual errors
Overgeneralization
“I wonder where are you going.”
Simplification
“I studied English for two year.”
Communication based
“Look at the fire flowers! (fireworks)
Induced errors
“She cries as if a baby” (She cries like a baby).
54
Error Analysis: Purpose
Purpose of error analysis for the teacher:
Error analysis tells the teacher “how far toward the
[target language] the learner has progressed and,
consequently, what remains for him [or her] to learn”
(p. 167).
Purpose for the learner:
Error analysis “is a way the learner has of testing
his [or her] hypotheses about the nature of the
language he [or she] is learning. The making of
errors then is a strategy employed both by children
acquiring their mother-tongue and by those learning
a second language” (p. 167).
55
Error Analysis: Process
During a sunny day, a cowboy go in the desert with
his horse. he has a big hat. His horse eat a flour.
In the same time, Santa Clause go in a city to give
some surprises. He has a red costume and a red
packet of surprises. You have three robbers in the
mountain who sees Santa Clause with a king of
glaces that it permitted us to see at a long distance.
Every robbers have a horse. They go in the way of
Santa Clause, not Santa Clause but his pocket of
surprises. After they will go in a city and they go in
a saloon.
A French speaker learning English
56
Error Analysis: Process
This year Christmas comes soon! Santa Claus ride
a one horse open sleigh to sent present for children,
on the back of his body has big packet. it has a lot
of toys. in the way he meet three robbers. They
want to take his big packet. Santa Claus no way
and no body help, so only a way give them, then
three robbers ride their horse dashing through the
town. There have saloon, they go to drink some
beer and open the big packent. They play toys in
the Bar. They meet a cow boy in the saloon.
A Chinese speaker learning English
57
Error Analysis: Eclipse
Contrastive analysis – Lado, 1957
Error analysis – Corder, 1967
EA fell out of favor in the early 1970s for 2 reasons:
1. EA did not explain errors. It was often
impossible to discern the cause of the error –
interlingual, or intralingual? Teacher induced, or
overgeneralization?
2. Scholars began to demand greater rigor in
empirical research in SLA, and the “untestable”
nature of EA (i.e., impossibility of precisely
defining the cause of the error) rendered it
unsatisfactory.
58
Error Analysis: Eclipse
Interlanguage remains as a very productive area of
inquiry in SLA – this is our next main discussion.
EA
Interlanguage
CA
59