Fall 2010
Program of Study
Technology for Teaching
Develop chemistry, physics, and biotechnology laboratory
modules for schools with limited access to specialty
chemicals and supplies.
Engineers without Borders
Iowa State University
Fall
2010
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Table of Contents
Biology I......................................................................................................................................................... 9
Overall Goal: Biology as a science ............................................................................................................. 9
Specific aims:......................................................................................................................................... 9

Identify the field of study of Biology ......................................................................................... 9

Biology divisions ........................................................................................................................ 9

Relation between Biology and other sciences (i.e., Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics,
Geography, and Informatics) ............................................................................................................ 9

Identify the basic characteristics of science ............................................................................. 9

Describe the components of the scientific method applied to Biology.................................... 9
Overall Goal: Identify the main characteristics and components of living beings ................................. 11
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 11

Identify the main characteristics on living beings: structure, organization, metabolism,
reproduction, growth, adaptation, etc. .......................................................................................... 11

Identify the main bioelements that form part of living beings: C, H, O, N, P, S, Ca, K, Cl, Fe, I,
etc. 11

Recognize the structure and function of the main organic biomolecules: Carbohydrates,
Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids ......................................................................................................... 11

Explain DNA replication .......................................................................................................... 11

Explain the synthesis of proteins from DNA ........................................................................... 11
Overall Goal: Recognize the cell as a unit of life ..................................................................................... 11
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 11

Identify cells as a basic component of life .............................................................................. 11

Cellular theory......................................................................................................................... 11

Explain theories about the origin of first cells ........................................................................ 11

Identify the different types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells ............................................ 11

Recognize the different components of the cell and their functions: membrane, cytoplasm,
etc. 11
Overall Goal: Metabolism of living beings .............................................................................................. 11
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 11

Identify the different energy forms in living beings ............................................................... 11
Page 1
Program of Study
Fall 2010

Identify the process for transformation of energy and the endothermic and exothermic
reactions in organisms .................................................................................................................... 11

Recognize the function of ATP in living beings ....................................................................... 11

Functions of enzymes in biological processes ........................................................................ 11

Describe the anabolic processes: Quimisynthesis, photosynthesis........................................ 11

Catabolic processes: Respiration, Fermentation .................................................................... 12
Overall Goal: Biodiversity and its preservation ...................................................................................... 12
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 12

Recognize the main characteristics of viruses: chemical composition, replication,
classification criteria, examples of diseases ................................................................................... 12

Classification of living beings .................................................................................................. 12

Describe the main characteristics of bacteria: structure, reproduction, respiration, etc. ..... 12

Recognize the importance of biodiversity .............................................................................. 12
Biology II...................................................................................................................................................... 13
Overall Goal: Identify the different types of cell and different organisms reproduction....................... 13
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 13

Recognize DNA as a fundamental structure of a chromosome .............................................. 13

Identify chromosome structure .............................................................................................. 13

Identify the stages of the cellular cycle involved in cancer .................................................... 13

Recognize the scientific advances that improve life quality ................................................... 13

Mitosis as a process of asexual reproduction ......................................................................... 13
Overall Goal: Recognize and apply the principles of heredity ................................................................ 13
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 13

Principles of genetics .............................................................................................................. 13

Identify the main terminology used in genetics: phenotype, genotype, etc. ......................... 13

Identify the principles of heredity .......................................................................................... 13

Identify human diseases related to genetic ............................................................................ 13
Overall Goal: Biotechnology ................................................................................................................... 13
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 13

Biotechnology applications ..................................................................................................... 13

Elaboration processes of wine, beer, bread ........................................................................... 13
Page 2
Program of Study
Fall 2010

Selective reproduction of plants and animals ........................................................................ 13

Elaboration processes of hormones, antibiotics, etc. ............................................................. 13

Transgenic organisms.............................................................................................................. 13

Bioremediation ....................................................................................................................... 13

Recognize the role of genetic engineering in biotechnology.................................................. 13
Overall Goal: Recognize the principles of biologic evolution and relate them with biodiversity........... 14
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 14

Identify the causes and objectives of evolution by natural and artificial selection................ 14
Overall Goal: Structural principles and functions of human beings ....................................................... 14
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 14

Recognize the components and functions of the immune system and its relation with the
generation of infections and diseases ............................................................................................ 14

Recognize the importance and function of the muscular system .......................................... 14

Recognize the importance and function of the skeletal system ............................................. 14

Identify the components and functions of the digestive system ........................................... 14

Identify the structural components and functions of the circulatory system ........................ 14

Identify the function of blood cells of human beings ............................................................. 14

Recognize the components and functions of the respiratory system .................................... 14

Recognize the functions of the urinary system ...................................................................... 14

Identify the function of the nervous system........................................................................... 14

Neurons as a basic unit of the nervous system ...................................................................... 14

Classification of the nervous system....................................................................................... 14

Recognize the components of the nervous system and their functions ................................ 14

Health problems related with the nervous system ................................................................ 14

Hormones and their functions as regulators of metabolic activity in human beings ............. 14

Recognize the components and functions of the reproductive systems for male and female
14

Diseases related with the reproductive systems .................................................................... 14
Overall Goal: Plants as complex organisms and their importance for living beings............................... 15
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 15

General characteristics of plants: nutrition, organization, transport and reproduction ........ 15
Page 3
Program of Study
Fall 2010

Types of cells present in plants ............................................................................................... 15

Parts of a plant ........................................................................................................................ 15

Identify the utility of the different parts of the plan for human beings ................................. 15

Recognize the biological, cultural, social and economic importance of plants ...................... 15
Chemistry I .................................................................................................................................................. 16
Overall Goal: Chemistry as a tool in life .................................................................................................. 16
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 16

Chemical science and technology in life ................................................................................ 16

Scientific method and its applications .................................................................................... 18
Overall Goal: Matter and Energy relationships ...................................................................................... 18
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 18

Matter: Properties and changes ............................................................................................. 18

Energy and its relationship with matter ................................................................................. 18
Overall Goal: Atomic model and its applications .................................................................................... 19
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 19

Atomic models and subatomic particles ................................................................................. 19

Basic concepts (Atomic number, atomic mass, mass number) .............................................. 19

Electronic configurations and quantum numbers .................................................................. 19

Isotopes and its applications ................................................................................................... 19
Overall Goal: Periodic table .................................................................................................................... 19
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 19

Chemical elements .................................................................................................................. 19

Groups, periods and blocks..................................................................................................... 19

Periodic properties and its variation in periodic table............................................................ 19

Importance and use of metal and non metal elements in social and economic life .............. 19
Overall Goal: Chemical bonds and intermolecular interactions ............................................................. 19
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 19

Chemical bond ........................................................................................................................ 19

Ionic bond properties .............................................................................................................. 19

Properties and formation of covalent bonds .......................................................................... 19

Metallic bond .......................................................................................................................... 20
Page 4
Program of Study

Fall 2010
Intermolecular forces .............................................................................................................. 20
Overall Goal: Inorganic Chemistry nomenclature................................................................................... 21
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 21

IUPAC rules to name inorganic compounds: Metallic oxides, non metallic oxides, metallic
hydrides, hydracids, hydroxides, oxyacids, salts............................................................................. 21
Overall Goal: Chemical reactions ............................................................................................................ 21
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 21

Symbols in chemical equations ............................................................................................... 21
o
Decomposition ........................................................................................................................ 21
o
Simple substitution ................................................................................................................. 21
o
Double substitution................................................................................................................. 21

Chemical reaction balance techniques ................................................................................... 21
Overall Goal: Heat and kinetics in chemical reactions............................................................................ 21
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 21

Enthalpy .................................................................................................................................. 21
o
Reaction enthalpy ................................................................................................................... 21
o
Formation enthalpy................................................................................................................. 21

Exothermic and endothermic reactions.................................................................................. 21

Reaction velocity ..................................................................................................................... 32

Sustainable development ....................................................................................................... 39
Chemistry II ................................................................................................................................................. 40
Overall Goal: Mole as a unit to measure chemical processes ................................................................ 40
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 40

Mole as a basic unit................................................................................................................. 40

Chemical laws of mass, definite proportions, multiple proportions and reciprocal
proportions. .................................................................................................................................... 40

Stoichiometric calculus ........................................................................................................... 40

Mole-mole, mass-mass, volume-volume relations ................................................................. 40

Minimal formula ..................................................................................................................... 40
Overall Goal: Reduction of pollution in air, water and soil techniques .................................................. 40
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 40
Page 5
Program of Study
Fall 2010

Pollution in soil, water and air ................................................................................................ 40

Primary and secondary contaminants .................................................................................... 40

Chemical reactions related to pollution.................................................................................. 40

Thermal inversion, smog and acid rain ................................................................................... 40
Overall Goal: Disperse systems ............................................................................................................... 40
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 40

Element, compound, mixture: homogeneous, heterogeneous ............................................. 40

Separation techniques ............................................................................................................ 40

Elements, compounds and mixtures’ characteristics. ............................................................ 40
Overall Goal: Carbon compounds in the environment ........................................................................... 41
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 41

Electronic configuration of carbon and its molecular geometry ............................................ 41

Molecular geometry................................................................................................................ 41

Types of isomers and chains ................................................................................................... 41

Physical properties, nomenclature and carbon compounds use............................................ 41

Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes ........................................................................................................ 41

Functional groups: alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids. ........................... 41
Overall Goal: Natural and synthetic macromolecules ............................................................................ 41
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 41

Monomers and polymers ........................................................................................................ 41

Lipids, proteins and carbohydrates......................................................................................... 41

Addition and condensation polymers ..................................................................................... 41
Physics I ....................................................................................................................................................... 42
Overall Goal: Relate the scientific knowledge and physic magnitudes, and basic tools to understand
natural phenomena ................................................................................................................................ 42
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 42

Identify prefixes used in the International System SI. ............................................................ 42

Identify types or errors in different kinds of measurements.................................................. 42

Analyze the precision of different instruments. ..................................................................... 42

Identify scalar and vector magnitudes.................................................................................... 42

Identify characteristics of a vector.......................................................................................... 42
Page 6
Program of Study

Fall 2010
Properties of vectors. .............................................................................................................. 42
Overall Goal: Identify the differences among different types of movement ......................................... 42
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 42

Recognize concepts related to motion (distance, time, position, displacement, speed,
velocity, acceleration, reference system). ...................................................................................... 42

Identify characteristics of movements. One dimension: uniform rectilinear, uniform
accelerated rectilinear, free fall. Two dimensions: Parabolic, uniform circular motion, accelerated
circular motion. ............................................................................................................................... 42
Overall Goal: Understand the utility in practice of Motion Newton Laws ............................................. 42
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 42

Describe historic background in the study of mechanical movement. (Aristotle, Galileo
Galilei, Isaac Newton). .................................................................................................................... 42

Define Newton's Law (Inertia, Force=Mass acceleration, action and reaction). Use these laws
to solve problems and use them to explain daily situations. ......................................................... 42

Recognize Gravitation Universal Law...................................................................................... 48

Conceptualize velocity and tangential acceleration. .............................................................. 48

Recognize Kepler’s Laws. ........................................................................................................ 48
Overall Goal: Relate work with energy ................................................................................................... 48
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 48

Define the concept of work in the context of physics as the scalar product between force
and displacement. ........................................................................................................................... 48

Define concepts of Kinetic Energy, Potential Energy and their relation with work................ 48

Identify the concept of power and its units. ........................................................................... 48

Identify Joules, erg as units of work, kinetic energy and potential energy. ........................... 48

Conservation of Mechanical Energy. ...................................................................................... 48

Recognize heat as a form or energy........................................................................................ 48
Physics II ...................................................................................................................................................... 49
Overall Goal: Describe fluids in motion and stationary state ................................................................. 49
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 49

Identify the different states of matter (liquid, solid, gas). ...................................................... 49

Identify the differences between fluids and solids from their physic properties................... 49
Page 7
Program of Study
Fall 2010

Describe different properties of fluids such as: viscosity,_ superficial tension, capillarity,
cohesion, adhesion, density, specific weight, pressure, hydrostatic Pressure, gauche pressure,
atmospheric pressure, absolute pressure. ..................................................................................... 49
Overall Goal: Differentiate heat and temperature ................................................................................. 56
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 56

Identify different concepts of heat, temperature, kinetic energy. ......................................... 56

Recognize the following scales of temperature and their units: Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin,
and Rankine..................................................................................................................................... 56

Identify the different mechanism of heat transfer: radiation, convection, conduction. ....... 56

Recognize absorbed heat vs. dissipated heat and its relation with temperature and mass. . 56
Overall Goal: Understand electricity laws .............................................................................................. 61
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 61

Identify basic electrostatic concepts such as: electrostatic charge, insulators, and
conductors. ..................................................................................................................................... 61

Identify concepts as electric field, electric potential energy, and electric potential. ............. 61

Identify characteristics of different kinds of circuits: parallel, series, mixed. ........................ 61

Solve problems using Ohm's Law............................................................................................ 61
Overall Goal: Relate electricity and magnetism ..................................................................................... 62
Specific aims:....................................................................................................................................... 62

Know historic background in the field of electromagnetism. (Hans Cristian Oersted, Michel
Faraday, Andre Marie Ampere, George Simon Ohm, James Clerk Maxwell) ................................. 62

Establish the characteristics of magnets and their magnetic interactions. ............................ 62

Explain the concept of magnetic field..................................................................................... 62
Page 8
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Biology I
Overall Goal: Biology as a science
Specific aims:

Identify the field of study of Biology

Biology divisions

Relation between Biology and other sciences (i.e., Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, Geography,
and Informatics)

Identify the basic characteristics of science

Describe the components of the scientific method applied to Biology
Experiment: The M&M Candy Experiment
The scientific method can be broken down into the following parts:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
State the problem. (We want to know how many M&Ms are in the bag. We want to know how much of
each color is in the bag.)
Gather information on the topic. (We know there are different colors of candy in the bag and we generally
know the size of each M&M)
Form a hypothesis. (We can create a hypothesis on how many M&Ms and how much of each color is in
the bag.)
Experiment! (We open the bag and start to count and record the data)
Record and analyze data. (With the candy counted, we can find information of the bags and average the
different bags.)
State a conclusion ( We can state a general conclusion on the bags of the M&M, give average numbers of
each bag.)
Supplies:


One regular sized bag of M&M’s (or other small piece of candy) for every 2 to 3 students.
One regular sized bag of M&M’s (or other small piece of candy) for demonstration.
Introduction:
The teacher holds up a bag of regular sized M&M’s. The teacher asks a question to begin the discussion--What
things might we want to know about this bag of M&M’s?
Students will respond with a variety of inquiriesHow many M&M’s are in the bag? What color M&M’s are in the
bag? How many of each color M&M are in the bag? How much does one M&M weigh? How much does the bag
weigh?
Page 9
Program of Study
Fall 2010
The teacher can choose one question. One question might be How many M&M’s are in the bag? Students
guess the number of M&M’s. Using the students’ guesses, the teacher introduces scientific terminology. For
instance, during the discussion of answers to the question of how many M&M’s are in the bag, the numbers put
forth are hypotheses. At this point, the teacher should write the definition of the new scientific term on the board
and have students copy it down. The teacher then will ask the students to volunteer some numbers to write on
the board. Afterwards the teacher asks—How do we determine which hypothesis, if any, is correct? The students
usually will ask the teacher to open the bag. The teacher then introduces the concept of data collection to
determine if one’s hypothesis is correct. The teacher opens the bag, counts the number of M&M’s and writes
‘Data’ under which she writes the number counted in her bag.
Now the students will split into groups of 2-3 and given this chart. It is now time for them to collect data.
By collecting the data from all of the groups, the teacher introduces the concept of multiple trials.
Group #
Total Number of
M&M’s in bag
Number of
Green M&M’s
Number of
Brown
M&M’s
Number of
Yellow
M&M’s
Number of
Orange
M&M’s
Number of
Blue M&M’s
1
2
3
Analyzing the Data:
Using the data from the class, the teacher is able to address the idea of variance in data. To follow up the teacher
asks—From our data, what would be an accurate way to determine the number of M&M’s in a random bag I pick
up at the grocery store? The average of the numbers provides an accurate description of the number of M&M’s in
a randomly chosen bag. Also, the average number of each color M&M per bag may be calculated. In addition to
the average calculations, the class determines the median and mode for the total number of M&M’s per bag
and/or the number of each color of M&M per bag.
References:
1.
2.
3.
http://www.scienceteacherprogram.org/genscience/AMeyer05.html
http://www.shellyssciencespot.com/Worksheets/ScientificMethod/M&M%20Lab.pdf
http://www.nhvweb.net/vhs/science/kluckhardt/cp%20bio/Introduction%20to%20Biology/Unit%201/M
&M.pdf
Page 10
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Overall Goal: Identify the main characteristics and components of living beings
Specific aims:

Identify the main characteristics on living beings: structure, organization, metabolism,
reproduction, growth, adaptation, etc.

Identify the main bioelements that form part of living beings: C, H, O, N, P, S, Ca, K, Cl, Fe, I, etc.

Recognize the structure and function of the main organic biomolecules: Carbohydrates, Lipids,
Proteins, Nucleic Acids
o Experiment: Extraction and identification of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins from vegetables
and animal fat

Explain DNA replication

Explain the synthesis of proteins from DNA
Overall Goal: Recognize the cell as a unit of life
Specific aims:

Identify cells as a basic component of life

Cellular theory

Explain theories about the origin of first cells

Identify the different types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Recognize the different components of the cell and their functions: membrane, cytoplasm, etc.
o Experiment: Extract and identify the cell structure from an onion
Overall Goal: Metabolism of living beings
Specific aims:

Identify the different energy forms in living beings

Identify the process for transformation of energy and the endothermic and exothermic reactions
in organisms

Recognize the function of ATP in living beings

Functions of enzymes in biological processes

Describe the anabolic processes: Quimisynthesis, photosynthesis
o Experiment: Growing plant under water
Page 11
Program of Study

Fall 2010
Catabolic processes: Respiration, Fermentation
o Experiment: Bug respiration
Overall Goal: Biodiversity and its preservation
Specific aims:

Recognize the main characteristics of viruses: chemical composition, replication, classification
criteria, examples of diseases

Classification of living beings

Describe the main characteristics of bacteria: structure, reproduction, respiration, etc.
o Experiment: Bacteria growth

Recognize the importance of biodiversity
Page 12
Program of Study
Biology II
Overall Goal: Identify the different types of cell and different organisms
reproduction
Specific aims:

Recognize DNA as a fundamental structure of a chromosome
o Experiment: Extraction of DNA from fruits

Identify chromosome structure

Identify the stages of the cellular cycle involved in cancer

Recognize the scientific advances that improve life quality

Mitosis as a process of asexual reproduction
Overall Goal: Recognize and apply the principles of heredity
Specific aims:

Principles of genetics

Identify the main terminology used in genetics: phenotype, genotype, etc.

Identify the principles of heredity

Identify human diseases related to genetic
Overall Goal: Biotechnology
Specific aims:

Biotechnology applications

Elaboration processes of wine, beer, bread
o Experiment: Beer and bread fermentation

Selective reproduction of plants and animals

Elaboration processes of hormones, antibiotics, etc.

Transgenic organisms

Bioremediation

Recognize the role of genetic engineering in biotechnology
Page 13
Fall 2010
Program of Study
Overall Goal: Recognize the principles of biologic evolution and relate them with
biodiversity
Specific aims:

Identify the causes and objectives of evolution by natural and artificial selection
Overall Goal: Structural principles and functions of human beings
Specific aims:

Recognize the components and functions of the immune system and its relation with the
generation of infections and diseases

Recognize the importance and function of the muscular system

Recognize the importance and function of the skeletal system

Identify the components and functions of the digestive system

Identify the structural components and functions of the circulatory system

Identify the function of blood cells of human beings

Recognize the components and functions of the respiratory system
o Artificial lung model

Recognize the functions of the urinary system

Identify the function of the nervous system

Neurons as a basic unit of the nervous system

Classification of the nervous system

Recognize the components of the nervous system and their functions

Health problems related with the nervous system

Hormones and their functions as regulators of metabolic activity in human beings

Recognize the components and functions of the reproductive systems for male and female

Diseases related with the reproductive systems
Page 14
Fall 2010
Program of Study
Overall Goal: Plants as complex organisms and their importance for living beings
Specific aims:
 General characteristics of plants: nutrition, organization, transport and reproduction
Chlorophyll extraction and a plant growing

Types of cells present in plants

Parts of a plant

Identify the utility of the different parts of the plan for human beings

Recognize the biological, cultural, social and economic importance of plants
Page 15
Fall 2010
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Chemistry I
Overall Goal: Chemistry as a tool in life
Specific aims:

Chemical science and technology in life
Chemistry Scavenger Hunt:
Note: Depending on how many of the following items are included, can make this activity one
for beginning chemistry students or an activity for mid-course students.
Materials: A worksheet for students with the scavenger hunt list (see below).
Procedure: Hand out worksheet to students. Instruct them to find examples of the items on the
list around their house, neighborhood, ect., to bring in. Can assign one item to each student or all
to each person (having them bring in only one or two in that case). Have students share their
findings with the rest of the class.
Questions:
Were there any surprises in what you found in your house/neighborhood?
Which were the most difficult to find?
1. An element
2. A heterogeneous mixture
3. A homogenous mixture
4. A gas-liquid solution
5. A malleable substance
6. A solid-liquid solution
7. A substance which has a volume of 1 cm3
8. An edible example of a physical change
9. An edible example of a chemical change
10. A pure compound which contains ionic bonds
11. A pure compound which contains covalent bonds
12. A mixture that can be separated by filtration
13. A mixture that can be separated by some other method than filtration
14. A substance with a density less than 1g/mL
15. A substance with a density more than one
16. A substance which contains a polyatomic ion
17. An acid
18. A metal
19. A non-metal
Page 16
Program of Study
Fall 2010
20. An inert gas
21. An alkaline earth metal
22. Immiscible liquids
23. A toy which demonstrates a physical change
24. The result of a chemical change
25. A mole
26. A substance with tetrahedral geometry
27. A base with a pH greater than 9
28. A polymer
Possible Answers:
1. An element
aluminum foil, copper wire, aluminum can, iron name
2. A heterogeneous mixture
sand and water, salt and iron filings
3. A homogenous mixture
air, sugar solution
4. A gas-liquid solution
soda
5. A malleable substance
play-doh. modeling clay
6. A solid-liquid solution
maybe an amalgam of silver and mercury? tough one - if you think of a decent example
let me know
7. A substance which has a volume of 1 cm3
standard sugar cube, cut a cube of soap the proper size
8. An edible example of a physical change
melting ice cream
9. An edible example of a chemical change
seltzer tablet (barely edible), candies that fizz or pop when damp
10. A pure compound which contains ionic bonds
salt
11. A pure compound which contains covalent bonds
sucrose or table sugar
12. A mixture that can be separated by filtration
fruit cocktail in syrup
13. A mixture that can be separated by some other method than filtration
salt water - salt and water can be separated using reverse osmosis or an ion exchange
column
14. A substance with a density less than 1g/mL
oil, ice
15. A substance with a density more than one
any metal, glass
16. A substance which contains a polyatomic ion
gypsum (SO42-), epsom salts
Page 17
Program of Study
17. An acid
vinegar (dilute acetic acid), solid citric acid
18. A metal
iron, aluminum, copper
19. A non-metal
sulfur, graphite (carbon)
20. An inert gas
helium in a balloon, neon in a glass tube, argon if you have access to a lab
21. An alkaline earth metal
calcium, magnesium
22. Immiscible liquids
oil and water
23. A toy which demonstrates a physical change
a toy steam engine
24. The result of a chemical change
ashes
25. A mole
18 g of water, 58.5 g of salt, 55.8 g of iron
26. A substance with tetrahedral geometry
silicates (sand, quartz), diamond
27. A base with a pH greater than 9
baking soda
28. A polymer
a piece of plastic
Reference: http://chemistry.about.com/od/chemistry101/a/scavenger.htm

Scientific method and its applications
Overall Goal: Matter and Energy relationships
Specific aims:

Matter: Properties and changes

Energy and its relationship with matter
Page 18
Fall 2010
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Overall Goal: Atomic model and its applications
Specific aims:

Atomic models and subatomic particles

Basic concepts (Atomic number, atomic mass, mass number)

Electronic configurations and quantum numbers

Isotopes and its applications
Overall Goal: Periodic table
Specific aims:

Chemical elements

Groups, periods and blocks

Periodic properties and its variation in periodic table

Importance and use of metal and non metal elements in social and economic life
Overall Goal: Chemical bonds and intermolecular interactions
Specific aims:

Chemical bond, Ionic bond properties, and Properties and formation of covalent bonds
Experiment: Physical Properties of Two Solids
Some solids consist of molecules in which the atoms are held together by covalent bonds. These compounds
are called molecular solids because they are made of molecules (instead of ions). Other solids consist of an
array of positive and negative ions, arranged in such a way that every positive ion has only negative
neighbours and vice versa; the solid is held together because of the attractions between ions of opposite
charge. These substances are called ionic solids. In this experiment, you will examine the physical properties of
the molecular solid “camphor” (in which atoms are joined by covalent bonds) and the ionic solid sodium
chloride (in which atoms are held together with ionic bonds). Please note that pure camphor can irritate your
skin; handle camphor with forceps at all times.
Procedure:
1. Set up your retort stand with a ring clamp and clay triangle. You should also have the fume hood in place.
Rest an inverted crucible cover in the clay triangle. The cover should be large enough so that it will not
pass through the triangle. If the triangle is too large, get another one. Do not light your Bunsen burner
yet.
2. Place a few crystals of NaCl on the inverted crucible lid. Smell the sodium chloride; record your
observation.
3. Place one small piece of camphor on the lid beside the NaCl. Smell the camphor; record your observation.
4. Place the crucible lid on a clay triangle attached to a retort stand. Set up your fume hood and position the
opening directly over the lid. Use a very low Bunsen burner flame (air valve closed, flame about 5 cm high)
Page 19
Program of Study
5.
6.
7.
8.
Fall 2010
to gently heat the crucible cover until one of the solids melts. Heat the crucible cover strongly for about
one minute. Record which compound melts and boils off (only one will disappear). Turn off the Bunsen
burner.
Get a watch glass and plastic spoon from the front of the room. Onto the watch glass place a sample of
NaCl and a piece of camphor (same sizes as before). Crush each of the chemicals with the back of the
spoon (by pushing down on the face of the spoon). In the table below, record the hardness of each solid.
Obtain two test tubes. Place a few crystals of NaCl in one tube and a sample of camphor in the other. Fill
each tube about ¼ full with distilled water. Mix the contents of the tubes by “flicking” the base of the
tubes with your finger for about one minute (“flicking” tubes with your fingernail can hurt – use the pad
of your finger instead). Note which compound is soluble in water. Keep the test tubes for the next step.
Get a plastic spot plate and a conductivity tester (with battery attached). Using the samples at the front of
the room, test the conductivity of a large salt crystal and a large camphor crystal. Record your findings.
Next, pour some of the liquid from the test tubes (step 6) into two wells of the spot plate. Measure and
record the conductivity of the solutions. Dump the contents of the tubes down the sink (place any pieces
of camphor in the trash). Rinse and dry the tubes and the spot plate. Return all equipment.
This last step will be done as a demonstration: place a sample of NaCl in one tube and a sample of
camphor in the other. Fill each tube about ¼ full with the “non-polar” solvent cyclohexane. Mix the
contents of the tubes by “flicking” the base of the tubes. Note which compound is soluble in cyclohexane.
Sodium chloride
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Odour (strong, weak, or nil)
Type of bonds between
atoms (ionic or covalent)
Melting point (high or low)
Boiling point (high or low)
Hardness (hard/brittle or
soft)
Solubility in a polar solvent
such as water (soluble or
insoluble)
Electrical conductivity of
solid (good or poor)
Electrical conductivity when
dissolved in water (good or
poor)
Solubility in a non-polar
solvent (soluble or
insoluble)
References:
1.
http://www.chalkbored.com/lessons/chemistry-11/two-solids-lab.pdf

Metallic bond

Intermolecular forces
Page 20
Camphor (C10H16O)
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Overall Goal: Inorganic Chemistry nomenclature
Specific aims:

IUPAC rules to name inorganic compounds: Metallic oxides, non metallic oxides, metallic
hydrides, hydracids, hydroxides, oxyacids, salts.
Overall Goal: Chemical reactions
Specific aims:


Symbols in chemical equations
o
Decomposition
o
Simple substitution
o
Double substitution
Chemical reaction balance techniques
Overall Goal: Heat and kinetics in chemical reactions
Specific aims:


Enthalpy
o
Reaction enthalpy
o
Formation enthalpy
Exothermic Reaction
Experiment: How Do You Get Heat from a Supercooled Solution? Explore the Chemistry Within Hand
Warmers
Abstract
You're at the high school football game and it's getting pretty chilly as the sun goes down. You're determined to
keep cheering for your team, but your hands are freezing—have you ever tried hand warmers? The chemistry
within these little packets is pretty cool. Hand warmers provide a unique and fun way to study the chemistry of
crystal formation and heat generation. By pressing a button in a pouch, which contains a supercooled solution, you
start a rapid exothermic (heat-producing) crystallization. In this science fair project, you will determine how the
starting temperature affects hand warmer chemistry.
Objective
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Program of Study
Fall 2010
The objective of this chemistry science fair project is to determine how the starting temperature affects crystal
growth and heat generation in a supersaturated sodium acetate solution—the solution used in hand warmers.
Introduction
Hand warmers are pretty cool devices—they are plastic pouches that contain a clear solution of sodium acetate
and a small metal disk. When the disk is pushed, the solution crystallizes and the pouch warms up to 58 degrees
Celsius (130 degrees Fahrenheit). It stays warm for 20–30 minutes. The hand warmer can be reused many times by
simply putting it in hot water. The crystals dissolve when the temperature rises above 58°C, and they stay in the
solution as the hand warmer cools to room temperature. Because the solution stays liquid at room temperature,
which is below the temperature at which crystals would normally form, it is called a supercooled solution.
The disk is slightly curved, so that when it is pushed or flexed, it snaps. The snap of the disk initiates crystallization
by producing a small amount of solid sodium acetate trihydrate that functions as a nucleation center for further
crystal growth. The crystals form because the sodium acetate solution is supersaturated. A supersaturated
solution is a solution that contains more of the solute than the liquid would ordinarily dissolve. You can see the
crystals form as a wave of white that flows from the disk to the edges of the hand warmer, as shown in the video
below.
The crystallization process is exothermic, meaning that heat is emitted. Chemical energy that was stored in the
solution is converted into heat energy. In thermochemistry, the amount of energy released by a chemical
substance during an exothermic change of state from liquid to solid (or solid to liquid) is called the latent heat of
fusion. The latent heat of fusion for the formation of the crystal sodium acetate trihydrate in the hand warmer is
approximately 264–289 joules/gram (J/g). Joules (J) are units of energy. The value for the latent heat of fusion tells
us that for every gram (g) of crystal formed, about 264 J of energy are released.
In this chemistry science fair project, you will investigate how the starting temperature affects the growth of
sodium acetate trihydrate crystals. You will also track how the starting temperature affects the temperature vs.
time profile associated with crystallization.
Terms, Concepts and Questions to Start Background Research

Sodium acetate

Supercooled solution

Sodium acetate trihydrate

Nucleation center

Supersaturated

Solute

Exothermic

Thermochemistry

Change of state

Latent heat of fusion

Metastable
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Program of Study
Fall 2010
Questions

Why don't the sodium acetate molecules in the supersaturated room-temperature solution precipitate to
form crystals? Hint: What is created in the nucleation center by the snap of the metal disk?

What is the trihydrate in sodium acetate trihydrate crystals?

What does it mean to refer to the supersaturated solution of sodium acetate as metastable?
Bibliography

HowStuffWorks, Inc. (n.d.). How do sodium-acetate heat pads work? Retrieved May 4, 2009, from
http://www.howstuffworks.com/question290.htm/printable

Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D., About Chemistry (2009). Exothermic reactions. Retrieved November 25,
2009, from http://chemistry.about.com/cs/generalchemistry/a/aa051903a.htm

Wikipedia Contributors (2009). Crystallization. Retrieved November 25, 2009, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crystallization&oldid=326582702
Materials and Equipment

Pot and a lid

Water

Heat pack hand warmers (1 package); available from sporting goods stores. A single hand warmer is
sufficient, but the procedure will go faster with two or three hand warmers.

Tea kettle

Coolers, any size (2)

Infrared thermometer, such as the Mastercool IR thermometer, model # 52224-A, available from
www.amazon.com

StyrofoamTM or paper plates or trays (3)

Lab notebook

Stopwatch or other timer

Optional: Camera or video camera

Optional: Ruler

Small piece of cloth, about 30 cm (12 inches) square

Ice

Tongs

Helper

Graph paper
Disclaimer: Science Buddies occasionally provides information (such as part numbers, supplier names, and supplier
weblinks) to assist our users in locating specialty items for individual projects. The information is provided solely as
a convenience to our users. We do our best to make sure that part numbers and descriptions are accurate when
first listed. However, since part numbers do change as items are obsoleted or improved, please send us an email if
you run across any parts that are no longer available. We also do our best to make sure that any listed supplier
Page 23
Program of Study
Fall 2010
provides prompt, courteous service. Science Buddies receives no consideration, financial or otherwise, from
suppliers for these listings. (The sole exception is any Amazon.com or Barnes&Noble.com link.) If you have any
comments (positive or negative) related to purchases you've made for science fair projects from recommendations
on our site, please let us know. Write to us at scibuddy@sciencebuddies.org.
Experimental Procedure
Important Notes Before You Begin:

In this science fair project, you will observe how the starting temperature affects the rate of crystal
growth, the size of the crystals, and the temperature in the hand warmer after activation.

The procedure calls for varying the starting temperature of the hand warmer. The starting temperatures
will be 0°C, 20°C, and 40°C. To get the hand warmers to these temperatures, you will place the hand
warmers in water baths. The water bath at 0°C will be just ice water. The other water baths will be made
by adding hot water to room temperature water until the proper temperature is obtained.
Preparing the Setup
1.
Heat water to boiling in the pot with the lid. Keep it boiling as you start your experiment.
a.
2.
This pot of hot water will be used to melt the crystals and to regenerate the hand warmer.
Heat water in the tea kettle to boiling, then remove it from the heat.
a.
This water will be used to raise the temperature in the water baths.
3.
Add room-temperature tap water to one of the coolers so that the water level will cover a hand warmer,
but do not place a hand warmer in there yet.
4.
Add hot water from the tea kettle to the water in the cooler until the water temperature is 20°C.
5.
Place a hand warmer in the 20°C water bath.
6.
Allow a few minutes for the hand warmer to come to the same temperature as the water in the cooler.
7.
Adjust the temperature with hot or cold water to keep the water bath at 20°.
Observing Crystallization Growth
Note: In the following steps, be ready with the timer and the infrared thermometer to observe and record the
changes that occur after crystallization is initiated. Have your helper assist you in taking readings and writing the
data.
1.
Remove the hand warmer from the 20° water bath.
2.
Record the starting temperature and the time in your lab notebook.
3.
Place the hand warmer on the Styrofoam tray.
a.
This insulates the hand warmer so that heat lost to the surface is minimized.
b.
You can also use an upside-down paper plate.
4.
Snap the metal disk in the hand warmer and start the timer. Start the timer at the same time as you snap
the disk.
5.
Time how long it takes for the entire hand warmer to crystallize.
a.
Watch the hand warmer carefully as the crystals form.
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Program of Study
6.
b.
Use your judgment about when the entire contents of the hand warmer have crystallized.
c.
Write down your criteria for determining that the entire contents of the hand warmer have
crystallized.
Record the temperature of the hand warmer every minute for 15 minutes.
a.
7.
Fall 2010
Feel free to change the time or duration of the measurements if you choose, but be sure to use
the same time/duration for each trial. For example, take the temperature every 15 seconds for
the first minute and every minute for 30 minutes thereafter.
Observe the crystals that are formed. Write all observations in your lab notebook.
a.
Record their shape.
b.
Record the maximum length of the crystals.
c.
i.
It will be difficult to obtain precise measurements of the crystals' length in the hand
warmer since they break easily and grow into each other. Just do your best to estimate.
ii.
As an option, photograph or film the hand warmer during crystallization and analyze the
images later. Include a ruler in the pictures so you know the scale.
Sketch the crystals in your lab notebook, or use photographs.
8.
To reactivate the hand warmer, wrap it in a piece of cloth and place it in the pot of boiling water for
several minutes.
9.
Use tongs to remove the hand warmer from the water.
10. Repeat steps 3–7 of Preparing the Setup and steps 1–9 of this section two more times.
Observing the Effect of a Cold Starting Temperature on Crystallization Growth
1.
Add ice and water to one of the coolers, enough that it will cover a hand warmer.
2.
Place the reactivated hand warmer in the ice water.
3.
Allow a few minutes for the hand warmer to cool to the same temperature as the ice water.
4.
Remove the hand warmer from the ice water.
5.
Record the starting temperature and the time in your lab notebook.
6.
Snap the metal disk in the hand warmer.
7.
Start the timer.
8.
Observe the crystal growth and temperature change, as you did in the previous section.
9.
Reactivate the hand warmer and repeat steps 1–8 of this section two more times.
Observing the Effect of a Hot Starting Temperature on Crystallization Growth
1.
Add enough room-temperature tap water to one of the coolers so that the water level will cover a hand
warmer. Do not place the hand warmer inside yet.
2.
Add hot water from the kettle to the water in the cooler until the water temperature is 40°C.
3.
Place a reactivated hand warmer in the 40°C water bath.
4.
Allow a few minutes for the hand warmer to come to the same temperature as the water in the cooler.
5.
Remove the hand warmer from the water.
6.
Record the starting temperature and the time in your lab notebook.
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Program of Study
7.
Snap the metal disk in the hand warmer.
8.
Start the timer.
9.
Observe the crystal growth and temperature change, as you did in the previous sections.
Fall 2010
10. Reactivate the hand warmer and repeat steps 1–8 of this section two more times.
Analyzing Your Results
1.
For the time it took to complete crystallization:
a.
2.
For the temperature vs. time data:
a.
3.
Graph the Time on the x-axis and the Temperature of the Hand Warmer on the y-axis.
For the length of the crystals:
a.
4.
Graph the Starting Temperature on the x-axis vs. the Time to Complete Crystallization on the yaxis.
Graph the Starting Temperature on the x-axis and the Maximum Length of the Observed Crystals
on the y-axis.
Discuss your results. For example, what was the maximum temperature reached for each starting
temperature, and how long did it take to reach it? Does the temperature remain constant for any length
of time for each of the hand warmers? Why? Which hand warmer had the longest crystals?
Variations

Repeat the procedure above with additional starting temperatures, such as: minus 10°C (use a freezer),
30°C, and 50°C.

Set up a calorimetry apparatus to measure the amount of energy produced by the hand warmer.
Calculate the mass of the sodium acetate trihydrate, based on the results.

The mechanism by which the metal disk initiates crystallization is not well characterized. Make a
hypothesis about what happens when the disk is snapped and devise a procedure to test it.

What is the highest temperature at which you can form crystals in the hand warmer?

For more science project ideas in this area of science, see Chemistry Project Ideas.
Credits
David B. Whyte, PhD, Science Buddies
Parts of the procedure were inspired by the following NASA project:
Donald, J. (n.d.). Rapid Crystallization. Retrieved May 6, 2009, from
http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/space/teachers/microgravity/12rapid.html
StyrofoamTM is a registered trademark of The Dow Chemical Company.
 Endothermic reactions
Experiment: Cold Pack Chemistry: Where Does the Heat Go?
Page 26
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Abstract
Instant cold packs are popular with coaches and parents for treating minor bumps and bruises. The instant cold
packs are not pre-cooled—you just squeeze the cold pack and its starts to get cold. So how does it work? In this
chemistry science fair project, you will investigate the chemical reaction that occurs in instant cold packs.
Objective
The objective of this chemistry science fair project is to determine how the temperature of a mixture of water and
ammonium nitrate changes with the amount of ammonium nitrate dissolved in the water.
Introduction
Have you ever used a hot pack to warm your hands or a cold pack on an injury? How can something produce heat
or cold without any microwaving or refrigeration involved? The answer is: chemistry. Chemical reactions that
produce heat are called exothermic. The burning of gasoline in a car engine is an example of an exothermic
reaction.
Reactions that are accompanied by the absorption of heat are called endothermic. As an example of an
endothermic reaction, when the chemical ammonium nitrate is dissolved in water, the resulting solution is colder
than either of the starting materials. This kind of endothermic process is used in instant cold packs. These cold
packs have a strong outer plastic layer that holds a bag of water and a chemical, or mixture of chemicals, that
result in an endothermic reaction when dissolved in water. When the cold pack is squeezed, the inner bag of water
breaks and the water mixes with the chemicals. The cold pack starts to cool as soon as the inner bag is broken, and
stays cold for over an hour. Many instant cold packs contain ammonium nitrate. Ammonium nitrate is a white
crystalline substance. When it is dissolved in water, it splits into positive ammonium ions and negative nitrate ions.
In the process of dissolving the crystal, the water molecules "donate" some of their energy. As a result, the water
cools down. How much heat energy is "lost" when ammonium nitrate dissolves in water? You can measure the
amount of heat that is involved using Equation 1.
Equation 1:
q = c m (T1 -T2)

q = energy, measured in joules (J)

c = heat capacity, measured in joules per gram per degree Celsius, J/(g°C)

m = mass of solution, measured in grams (g)

J = joules (J), unit of energy

g = grams (g) of water

°C = degrees Celsius

T1 = starting temperature, in degrees Celsius

T2 = lower temperature after ammonium nitrate has dissolved, in degrees Celsius
Page 27
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Equation 1 states that "the amount of heat energy that is lost when water changes from temperature T1 to the
lower temperature, T2, equals the difference in the two temperatures, times the heat capacity, times the mass of
the solution."
The heat capacity of a substance tells you how much the temperature will change for a given amount of energy
exchanged. For water at 25°C, the heat capacity is 4.18 J/(g°C).
Equation 2:
c (water) =
4.18 J
(g°C)

c = heat capacity, measured in joules per gram per degrees Celsius, (J/g°C)

J = joules (J), unit of energy

g = grams (g) of water

°C = degrees Celsius
Equation 2 says that "the heat capacity of water is 4.18 joules per gram of water per degree Celsius." What this
means is that if you add 4.18 J of heat energy to 1 g of water, its temperature will increase by 1.0°C. Substances
other than water have different heat capacities.
In this chemistry science fair project, you will determine how the amount of ammonium nitrate that is dissolved in
water affects the magnitude of the temperature change that occurs. In the procedure, you will dissolve different
amounts of ammonium nitrate in water and measure the before and after temperatures, then graph the
temperature change vs. grams of ammonium acetate added.
Terms, Concepts and Questions to Start Background Research

Exothermic

Endothermic

Ammonium nitrate

Ion

Heat energy

Heat capacity

Joule (J)

Entropy
Questions

Based on your research, what are some examples of exothermic and endothermic reactions?

What is the chemical formula for ammonium nitrate dissolving in water?
Page 28
Program of Study
Fall 2010

How does the heat capacity of water compare with the heat capacity of other common materials, such as
aluminum, glass, or air?

Based on your research, what is the definition of entropy? Does it increase or decrease when ammonium
nitrate dissolves in water?
Bibliography

Wikipedia Contributors. (2009, April 14). Specific Heat Capacity. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia.
Retrieved April 30, 2009, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Specific_heat_capacity&oldid=283732656

Helmenstine, H.M. (n.d.). Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions. Retrieved April 30, 2009, from
http://chemistry.about.com/cs/generalchemistry/a/aa051903a.htm
These more-advanced sites discuss the thermodynamics of the ammonium nitrate reaction. The W.W. Norton site
has nice Flash tutorials that explain the basic chemistry.

Tissue, B.M. (2000). Thermodynamics of Ammonium Nitrate Dissolving in Water. Retrieved April 30, 2009,
from http://www.files.chem.vt.edu/chem-ed/thermo/reaction.html

W.W. Norton and Company. (2003). Flash Tutorial: Ammonium Nitrate Dissolution.Retrieved April 30,
2009, from http://www.wwnorton.com/college/chemistry/gilbert/overview/ch13.htm
Materials and Equipment

StyrofoamTM cups, 12-ounce (oz.) (5)

Permanent marker

Water, distilled

Measuring cup, liquid

Latex gloves

Safety goggles

Scissors

Instant cold packs containing ammonium nitrate and water (4). Instant cold packs are available at most
sporting goods stores. The water is in a separate bag within the cold pack.

Plastic bowl, disposable

Wax paper, cut into 10-cm squares (15, more as needed)

Plastic spoons (5)

Newspaper, scrap to cover your work surface

Digital scale, accurate to at least 1 g
o
As an option, use a scale accurate to 0.1 g, such as the American Weigh AMW-100 Digital Pocket
Scale with 100-g calibration weight, available from www.amazon.com

Digital thermometer, such as the Mastercool IR thermometer from www.amazon.com

Lab notebook

Digital timer
Page 29
Program of Study

Helper

Graph paper
Experimental Procedure
Performing the Experiment
1.
Label the Styrofoam cups with numbers 1 to 5.
2.
Add 100 mL of distilled water to each of the five cups.
3.
Cover the work surface with newspaper.
4.
Collect the ammonium nitrate from the instant cold pack, as follows:
a.
Put on your safety goggles and latex gloves.
b.
Shake the instant cold pack gently to move the water bag and crystals to the bottom.
c.
Cut the top of the bag off.
d.
Pour the ammonium nitrate crystals into the plastic bowl.
e.
Dispose of the water bag.
Figure 1. Ammonium nitrate from an instant cold pack.
f.
Place one of the wax paper squares on the scale.
Page 30
Fall 2010
Program of Study
6.
g.
Zero the scale.
h.
Use a plastic spoon to add 10.0 g of ammonium nitrate on the square.
Fall 2010
Record the starting temperature of the water in cup # 1 in a data table in your lab notebook.
f.
Point the digital thermometer at the water's surface and push the "on" button to get the
temperature.
7.
Add 10.0 g of ammonium nitrate to the water in cup # 1.
8.
Start the timer.
9.
Stir the contents with a plastic spoon.
10. Record the temperature every 15 seconds (sec) until it stabilizes.
.
You can record at longer intervals, such as 30 sec, if you choose.
a.
You might want a helper to write the times and temperatures down as you take the
readings.
b.
Stir the contents of the cup gently between each reading.
c.
Remove the spoon when taking the temperature, as it may cause an error in the reading.
d.
Stop taking readings when the temperature stops decreasing.
11. Dispose of the ammonium nitrate solution down the sink.
12. Repeat steps 6–9, with new and clean materials and equipment, adding the following amounts of
ammonium nitrate. Note: You may need to divide the ammonium nitrate onto two or more pieces of wax
paper if it will not all fit on one piece. Be sure to record the starting temperature, the intermediate
temperatures, and the final temperature for each sample.
.
Cup #2: 20 g
a.
Cup #3: 30 g
b.
Cup #4: 40 g
c.
Cup #5: 50 g
13. Repeat steps 1–11 two more times, so you have at least three trials. This ensures that your results are
accurate and repeatable. Create a new data table for each trial. You can reuse the spoons and cups for the
new trials, after rinsing them thoroughly with water.
14. Dissolve any leftover ammonium nitrate in water and dispose of it in a sink.
Analyzing Your Results
1.
Look at your data tables. Subtract the ending temperature from the beginning temperature for each cup.
2.
Add the mass of ammonium nitrate to the data table for samples 1–5.
3.
Graph the data, with the grams of ammonium nitrate on the x-axis and the temperature difference on the
y-axis.
4.
How does the final temperature change as more ammonium nitrate is added?
5.
Using Equation 1 from the Introduction, calculate the heat energy, q, in joules, that each sample lost.
a.
Use the heat capacity value from Equation 2 for "c."
b.
Use the total mass (water plus ammonium nitrate) for "m": 110 g for cup #1, 120 g for cup #2,
etc.
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Program of Study
c.
6.
Fall 2010
Use the temperature change from the table for T1 - T2.
Graph the results, with the amount of ammonium nitrate in grams on the x-axis and the heat energy (q)
on the y-axis.
Variations

Use different amounts of ammonium nitrate. What happens when the solution becomes saturated (that
is, no more ammonium nitrate can be dissolved)?

Graph the temperature vs. time for each sample. Look at the slope of the graphs. Do they all have the
same initial rate of change, or does the initial rate of change increase as the amount of crystal increases?

Calculate q/gram for each sample. Graph the results.

What are some sources of error in the procedure? Devise a new procedure that reduces or eliminates the
sources of error you identified.

Devise a procedure to determine how varying the starting temperature affects the size of the
temperature change.

Compare ammonium nitrate with other chemicals, such as ammonium chloride, calcium chloride
(exothermic), and sodium chloride.

Research the thermodynamics of the ammonium nitrate dissolution and calculate the enthalpy and
entropy changes that occur.

For more science project ideas in this area of science, see Chemistry Project Ideas.
Credits
David B. Whyte, PhD, Science Buddies

StyrofoamTM is a registered trademark of The Dow Chemical Company.
 Reaction velocity
Experiment: Investigate the Kinetics of the Amazing Iodine Clock Reaction
Abstract
The iodine clock reaction is a favorite demonstration reaction in chemistry classes. Two clear liquids are mixed,
resulting in another clear liquid. After a few seconds, the solution suddenly turns dark blue. The reaction is called a
clock reaction because the amount of time that elapses before the solution turns blue depends on the
concentrations of the starting chemicals. In this chemistry science fair project, you will explore factors that affect
the rate of the iodine clock reaction.
Objective
Determine how the concentration of hydrogen peroxide affects the rate of the iodine clock reaction and calculate
the reaction order.
Page 32
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Introduction
Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry that is concerned with the mechanisms and rates of chemical
reactions. The mechanism of a chemical reaction is a description of what happens to each molecule at a very
detailed level—which bonds are broken, which new bonds are formed, and how the three-dimensional shapes of
the chemicals changes during the course of the reaction. The rate of the reaction is a measure of its speed. The
rate of a chemical reaction can be measured by how quickly the reactants disappear, or by how quickly the
products are generated. The iodine clock reaction is a favorite demonstration in chemistry classes because it has
an element of drama. Two clear solutions are mixed, producing a new clear solution. Then, after a period of
several seconds, the solution turns dark blue. As mentioned, chemical kinetics measures how fast a reaction is
occurring. For most chemical reactions, the rate is so fast that special equipment is needed to measure it. For the
iodine clock reaction, on the other hand, the rate can be easily measured with a stopwatch.
To perform the iodine clock reaction in this science fair project, you will mix potassium iodide, hydrochloric acid,
starch, thiosulfate and hydrogen peroxide. The time it takes for the reaction mix to turn blue will be measured
with a stopwatch. For the procedure, you will vary the amount of hydrogen peroxide to see how this affects the
time the mixed chemicals stay clear before turning blue.
The reactions that form the basis for the iodine clock reaction are shown below.
Equation 1:
H2O2 + 3 I- + 2 H+ → I3- + 2 H2O

H2O2 = Hydrogen peroxide

I- = Iodide ion (from potassium iodide)

H+ = A proton, from hydrochloric acid (HCL)

I3- = Triiodide

H2O = Water
This equation states that hydrogen peroxide reacts with iodide ions in acid solution to form triiodide and water.
Triiodide has the very interesting property of reacting with starch to form a dark blue complex. There is starch in
the mix of chemicals, so why doesn't the triiodide react with it? The reason the triiodide doesn't react with the
starch is that it is immediately consumed in a reaction with the thiosulfate.
Equation 2:
I3S- + 2 S2O32- → 3 I- + S4O62
I3S- = Triiodide

S2O32- = Thiosulfate ion

3 I- = Iodide ion
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Program of Study

Fall 2010
S4O62- = Tetrathionate ion
Equation 2 says that triiodide reacts with thiosulfate to form iodide ions and tetrathionate.
The reaction in Equation 2 happens so fast that none of the triiodide has time to form a complex with starch, even
though the starch is in the reaction mix. The reactions in Equations 1 and 2 are moving along during the lag time
between mixing the chemicals and the dramatic appearance of the blue color. Note that iodide ions are
regenerated in Equation 2, so they are available to react with the hydrogen peroxide in Equation 1. The thiosulfate,
on the other hand, is consumed as it is turned into tetrathionate. The lag period ends when the thiosulfate is all
used up. At this time, the triiodide is able to react with the starch.
Equation 3:
I3- + starch → (I3- starch complex)

I3- = Triiodide

I3- starch complex, which is blue
This equation says that starch reacts with triiodide to form a blue complex.
The faster the reaction in Equation 1 goes, the faster the triiodide uses up the thiosulfate and the faster the
triiodide is free to react with the starch. What is the rate of the first reaction? The rate of the reaction in Equation
1 is a measure of how the concentration of hydrogen peroxide changes per unit time:
Equation 4:
Rate = [Change in (H2O2)]/sec

(H2O2) = Concentration of hydrogen peroxide
Equation 4 indicates that the rate of the reaction is proportional to the reciprocal of the time.
The rate of a reaction depends on the concentration of the reactants. In Equation 1, for example, increasing the
amount of hydrogen peroxide will increase the rate at which it reacts with iodide. The concentrations of iodide and
acid remain the same, so the rate will depend only on the changes in hydrogen peroxide concentration. (The iodide
is recycled between Equations 1 and 2, and the concentration of acid is high enough that the change in its
concentration is small. Note the concentrations of the reactants in the Materials and Equipment section). The rate
actually depends on the concentration of hydrogen peroxide raised to a power, called the "reaction order."
Equation 5:
Rate = k(H2O2)x
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Program of Study

k = Rate constant, in 1/seconds (s)

(H2O2) = Concentration of hydrogen peroxide, in moles/liter

x = Order of the reaction for hydrogen peroxide, unitless
Fall 2010
The good news from Equation 5 is that the rate depends on the concentration of hydrogen peroxide, and you will
know what the concentration of hydrogen peroxide is when the reaction starts. You will use the number of
hydrogen peroxide drops as a measure of its concentration.
There are many ways to explore the chemistry of the iodine clock reaction. The details of the reaction mechanisms
can be studied by varying the concentrations of other reactants, in addition to hydrogen peroxide. And it is ideal
for investigating the effect of temperature on reaction rates. Some of these areas are touched on in the Variations.
Now, let's get started.
Terms, Concepts and Questions to Start Background Research

Chemical kinetics

Chemical reaction

Mechanism

Rate

Reactant

Product

Iodine clock reaction

Solution

Potassium iodide

Hydrochloric acid

Starch

Thiosulfate

Hydrogen peroxide

Complex
Questions

What would happen to the iodine clock reaction if the reaction shown in Equation 2 were very slow
instead of very fast?

What is the acid that is used in the reactions described above?

Based on your research, what is chemical complex?
Page 35
Program of Study
Fall 2010

What is the structure of the starch and triiodide complex? Why is it blue?

Why does the rate of Equation 2 depend on the rate of Equation 1?

How would adding more thiosulfate affect the lag period of the clock reaction?

Some sources state that triiodide is not really the form of iodine in the starch complex. What other forms
have been proposed and which way does the evidence point (triiodide or not) in your opinion?

How can Equations 4 and 5 be combined? Hint: The result should show that the reciprocal of the time is
proportional to the hydrogen peroxide concentration raised to the value of x, the rate constant.
Bibliography
1.
Wikipedia Contributors. (2009, September 28). Iodine clock reaction. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia.
Retrieved October 30, 2009, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iodine_clock_reaction&oldid=316671620
2.
Division of Chemical Education, Inc., American Chemical Society. (1999). Iodine clock reaction videos.
Retrieved October 30, 2009, from
http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/JCESoft/CCA/CCA3/MVHTM/CLOCKRX/CLOCK1.HTM
3.
Brooks, David W. University of Nebraska, Lincoln (n.d.). Iodine Clock Kinetics. Retrieved October 30, 2009,
from http://dwb4.unl.edu/chemistry/smallscale/SS055.html
4.
Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. (2008). Kinetics. Retrieved
October 30, 2009, from http://www.shodor.org/unchem/advanced/kin/index.html
Materials and Equipment

Latex gloves; available at hardware stores

Safety goggles

Newspaper to protect work area

Reaction kinetics kit; available from www.enasco.com
o
Contact Aldon Sciences for a list of other vendors that supply this kit at 1-800-724-9877 or email
them at info@aldon-chem.com
o
The kit should contain the following solutions and materials: potassium iodide 0.1% solution,
hydrogen peroxide 3%, sodium thiosulfate 0.001 M, hydrochloric acid, 0.1M, starch capsules,
pipettes

Beaker, 50-mL; available from online science supply stores, such as WARD's Natural Science at
wardsci.com, item # 18 V 1000

Distilled water (1 gallon); available at grocery stores

Micro titer plates; available from online suppliers, such as WARD's Natural Science at wardsci.com,
Poyethylene Spot Plate, Item # 18 V 1371
o
As an alternative to the micro titer plate, mix the drops on a piece of plastic wrap that is spread
over a piece of white printer paper.

Toothpicks

Stopwatch or other timer

White piece of printer paper
Page 36
Program of Study

Permanent marker

Thermometer

Lab notebook
Fall 2010
Disclaimer: Science Buddies occasionally provides information (such as part numbers, supplier names, and supplier
weblinks) to assist our users in locating specialty items for individual projects. The information is provided solely as
a convenience to our users. We do our best to make sure that part numbers and descriptions are accurate when
first listed. However, since part numbers do change as items are obsoleted or improved, please send us an email if
you run across any parts that are no longer available. We also do our best to make sure that any listed supplier
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comments (positive or negative) related to purchases you've made for science fair projects from recommendations
on our site, please let us know. Write to us at scibuddy@sciencebuddies.org.
Experimental Procedure
Performing the Experiment
1.
Be sure to wear your safety goggles and latex gloves.
2.
Protect the surface on which you are working with newspaper.
3.
Prepare a 1% starch solution by dissolving a starch capsule from the reaction kinetics kit in 50 mL of
distilled water in the beaker.
4.
Set up the micro titer plate for the first set of experiments.
5.
a.
As an alternative, mix the drops on a flat piece of plastic wrap that is placed over a piece of white
printer paper. Separate the drops by 2–3 centimeters (cm).
b.
Look at the mixed drops against a white background; for example, against a white piece of paper.
c.
Experiments will be run in duplicates (two wells per test).
d.
If you do not get reproducible results, run the experiment again.
In two adjacent wells, add the following (use the pipettes that came with the kit) to each well:
a.
4 drops of the potassium iodide (KI) solution
b.
2 drops of water
c.
2 drops of hydrochloric acid
d.
1 drop of starch solution
e.
1 drop of thiosulfate solution
f.
8 drops of hydrogen peroxide
6.
Mix well with a toothpick.
7.
Start the timer. Begin timing as soon as the hydrogen peroxide is added.
8.
Record the time that you can first see some blue color developing in your lab notebook.
a.
Call this the time lag.
b.
Also record the room temperature.
Varying the Hydrogen Peroxide Concentration
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Program of Study
Fall 2010
Note: You will now continue the procedure using one less drop of hydrogen peroxide and one more drop of water.
The first two sets are detailed below.
For 7 drops hydrogen peroxide:
1.
In two adjacent wells, add the following to each well:
a.
4 drops of the potassium iodide (KI) solution
b.
3 drops of water
c.
2 drops of hydrochloric acid
d.
1 drop of starch solution
e.
1 drop of thiosulfate solution
f.
7 drops of hydrogen peroxide
2.
Mix well with a toothpick.
3.
Start the timer.
4.
Record the time that the solution turned blue.
5.
Record the room temperature.
For 6 drops hydrogen peroxide:
1.
In two adjacent wells, add the following:
a.
4 drops of the potassium iodide (KI) solution
b.
4 drops of water
c.
2 drops of hydrochloric acid
d.
1 drop of starch solution
e.
1 drop of thiosulfate solution
f.
6 drops of hydrogen peroxide
2.
Mix well with a toothpick.
3.
Start the timer.
4.
Record the time that the solution turned blue.
5.
Record the room temperature.
Completing the Experiment
1.
Repeat steps 1–5 for 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 drop of hydrogen peroxide. Remember, each time, add one drop of
water and subtract one drop of hydrogen peroxide. This will keep the total volume of the reaction
constant, while changing the concentration of the hydrogen peroxide.
2.
Perform the entire procedure two more times with clean materials. This will demonstrate that your
results can be repeated.
Analyzing Your Results
1.
Make a data table that shows the following:
Page 38
Program of Study
2.
3.
4.
Fall 2010
a.
The number of drops of hydrogen peroxide.
b.
The time lag for each test, in seconds (sec).
c.
Average of the time lags for similar samples, in seconds. For example, average the three trials for
the set with seven drops of hydrogen peroxide.
d.
The reciprocal of the average time lag for each test, in 1/sec.
Graph the number of drops of hydrogen peroxide on the x-axis and the reciprocal of the time lag on the yaxis.
a.
The reciprocal of the time lag is proportional to the rate, so the y-axis is a measure of the
reaction rate.
b.
Label the y-axis Reaction rate and the x-axis Concentration of hydrogen peroxide.
Note the shape of the curve. From Equation 5 in the Introduction, the curve shape depends on "x," the
order of the reaction for hydrogen peroxide.
a.
If x = 1, the curve will be a straight line. (Doubling the hydrogen peroxide will double the reaction
rate).
b.
If x = 2, the curve will look like the curve for y = x2, which is a parabola (doubling the hydrogen
peroxide will make the reaction go four times faster).
Based on your results, what is the order of the reaction for hydrogen peroxide?
Variations

Graph the number of drops on the x-axis and the time lag on the y-axis. What does this graph show?

Calculate the concentration of hydrogen peroxide for each sample and use this number in your analysis.

Vary the concentration of other reagents, such as potassium iodide or thiosulfate. Predict how the changes will affect
the rate then design a procedure to test your hypothesis.

Devise a procedure to test how the reaction rate changes with temperature.

Use a graphing program to determine the value of "x" in your graph of the rate vs. hydrogen peroxide concentration.

For more science project ideas in this area of science, see Chemistry Project Ideas.
Credits
David B. Whyte, PhD, Science Buddies

Sustainable development
Page 39
Program of Study
Chemistry II
Overall Goal: Mole as a unit to measure chemical processes
Specific aims:

Mole as a basic unit

Chemical laws of mass, definite proportions, multiple proportions and reciprocal proportions.

Stoichiometric calculus

Mole-mole, mass-mass, volume-volume relations

Minimal formula
Overall Goal: Reduction of pollution in air, water and soil techniques
Specific aims:

Pollution in soil, water and air

Primary and secondary contaminants

Chemical reactions related to pollution

Thermal inversion, smog and acid rain
Overall Goal: Disperse systems
Specific aims:

Element, compound, mixture: homogeneous, heterogeneous

Separation techniques

Elements, compounds and mixtures’ characteristics.
Page 40
Fall 2010
Program of Study
Overall Goal: Carbon compounds in the environment
Specific aims:

Electronic configuration of carbon and its molecular geometry

Molecular geometry

Types of isomers and chains

Physical properties, nomenclature and carbon compounds use

Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes

Functional groups: alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids.
Overall Goal: Natural and synthetic macromolecules
Specific aims:

Monomers and polymers

Lipids, proteins and carbohydrates

Addition and condensation polymers
Page 41
Fall 2010
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Physics I
Overall Goal: Relate the scientific knowledge and physic magnitudes, and basic tools
to understand natural phenomena
Specific aims:

Identify prefixes used in the International System SI.

Identify types or errors in different kinds of measurements.

Analyze the precision of different instruments.

Identify scalar and vector magnitudes.

Identify characteristics of a vector.

Properties of vectors.
Overall Goal: Identify the differences among different types of movement
Specific aims:

Recognize concepts related to motion (distance, time, position, displacement, speed, velocity,
acceleration, reference system).

Identify characteristics of movements. One dimension: uniform rectilinear, uniform accelerated
rectilinear, free fall. Two dimensions: Parabolic, uniform circular motion, accelerated circular
motion.
Overall Goal: Understand the utility in practice of Motion Newton Laws
Specific aims:

Describe historic background in the study of mechanical movement. (Aristotle, Galileo Galilei,
Isaac Newton).

Define Newton's Law (Inertia, Force=Mass acceleration, action and reaction). Use these laws to
solve problems and use them to explain daily situations.
Experiment: Rocketology: Baking Soda + Vinegar = Lift Off!
Abstract
Watching a space shuttle or a rocket launch is an amazing experience. It is thrilling to see the rocket
lift off and escape Earth's gravity. Did you know that it takes a chemical reaction to get a rocket into
space? Every time you see a rocket blast off, you are watching chemistry at work. In this chemistry
Page 42
Program of Study
Fall 2010
science fair project, you'll also get to blast an object into the air. You won't be using the same fuel
that NASA uses for their rockets; instead, you will use two simple ingredients—baking soda and
vinegar. The interesting part will be to figure out how much you need of each one. If you are
interested in becoming a rocket scientist in the future, you should definitely try this science fair
project.
Objective
To determine the correct ratio of baking soda to vinegar that will result in the highest launch of a
plastic canister.
Introduction
Have you ever watched a space shuttle launch on television or seen one live? One question that may
have crossed your mind when watching this awesome spectacle is, "How does a space shuttle lift off
and get into space?" The simple answer to this question is that the space shuttle has engines that lift
it into space. But all of that fire and smoke is not an explosion. All rockets depend on combustion to
provide the thrust that is required for a vessel to overcome the force of gravity and climb into space.
The space shuttle is made up of the orbiter (which holds the astronauts and different kinds of
payload), the dark orange-colored external fuel tank, and two solid rocket boosters. At launch, the two
solid rocket boosters, along with three space shuttle main engines, power the liftoff. Contrary to
popular belief, it doesn't take an explosion to get a rocket ship off of the earth. Rocket engines
function on the principle of combustion. Combustion is a chemical reaction between a fuel and an
oxidant where the fuel is burned or oxidized. An oxidant or oxidizer is a chemical that causes another
chemical to burn. In the solid rocket boosters, the fuel is aluminum and the oxidant is ammonium
perchlorate. The three space shuttle main engines use liquid hydrogen as the fuel and liquid oxygen as
the oxidant.
Combustion produces great amounts of exhaust gas at high temperatures and pressure. The hot
gases are pushed out from the bottom of the rocket and thus, the rocket is thrust upward. This is an
example of Isaac Newton's third law of motion, which states that for every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction. The gases exiting from the rocket have a downward force that is equal
and opposite to the force with which the rocket moves up.
Mixing the fuel and oxidant together correctly is complicated and something that real rocket scientists
work hard to perfect. In this chemistry science fair project, you will become a rocket scientist, but
instead of using dangerous chemicals, you will use a chemical reaction between baking soda (sodium
bicarbonate) and vinegar (acetic acid). This reaction produces water and carbon dioxide. Carbon
dioxide is what makes soda fizzy and bubbly, which is why you see lots of bubbling and foaming when
you mix baking soda and vinegar together. You will mix baking soda and vinegar in a capped film
canister and take advantage of the pressure the carbon dioxide gas creates in the canister to launch
your own small-scale rocket, experimenting with how different amounts of baking soda and vinegar
affect the launch height. You might not be launching the space shuttle, but you will still have messy
fun escaping the force of gravity for a few seconds with your own rocket!
Terms, Concepts and Questions to Start Background Research

Combustion

Thrust

Gravity

Chemical reaction
Page 43
Program of Study

Fuel

Oxidation

Exhaust

Pressure

Newton's third law of motion

Ion
Fall 2010
Questions

What is a chemical reaction?

What is combustion?

Can you describe Newton's third law of motion and come up with examples?

Describe the chemical reaction between baking soda and vinegar
Bibliography

Wikipedia Contributors. (2009, September 1). Space Shuttle. Wikipedia: The Free
Encyclopedia. Retrieved September 3, 2009, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Space_Shuttle&oldid=311180564
The following NASA website has information on everything you have ever wanted to know about
rockets.

Benson, T. (ed). (2007, October 10). NASA: Rocket Index. Retrieved September 1, 2009, from
http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/education/rocket/shortr.html
If you would like to know more about the baking soda and vinegar reaction, take a look at this
website.

Apple-cider-vinegar-benefits.com. (n.d.). Baking Soda and Vinegar Reaction and
Demonstrations. Retrieved September 1, 2009, from http://www.apple-cider-vinegarbenefits.com/baking-soda-and-vinegar.html
For help creating graphs, try this website:

National Center for Education Statistics. (n.d.). Create a Graph. Retrieved June 2, 2009, from
http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/CreateAGraph/default.aspx
Materials and Equipment

Plastic Fuji® film canisters with the tops (at least 3)

Construction paper, any color, 9 inches (in.) X 12 in. (1 pack)

Scotch® tape (1 roll)

Scissors

Permanent marker

Ruler, in inches
Page 44
Program of Study

Optional: Ladder

Baking soda (1 box)

White vinegar (1/2 gallon bottle or jug)

Measuring spoon, 1/8 teaspoon (tsp.)

Measuring spoon, 1 tsp.

Bowl

Water

Spoon

Safety goggles

Adult volunteer

Lab notebook
Fall 2010
Experimental Procedure
Note: Since this science fair project can be messy, you should perform all tests outside. Your location
should be along a tall wall and free from debris.
Preparing Your Test Area
1. Start building the body of the rocket. Take a piece of construction paper and wrap it around
the film canister. Make sure to wrap along the short side of the paper, about 2 millimeters
below the lip of edge of the canister, and make sure that the lid is not enclosed or covered by
the tube of paper. Wrap the paper neatly and evenly along the canister and use the scissors to
remove the excess paper from the bottom. Secure the paper with a few pieces of Scotch tape.
2. Now tape several pieces of construction paper together to make a very large piece of
construction paper. Make the large piece of construction paper three paper pieces wide and as
tall as your wall.
3. Starting from the bottom of the large paper, use the ruler and permanent marker to mark off
every 6 inches. Next to each mark, write down the length, in feet (such as ½ foot, 1 foot,
etc.). Tape the paper to the wall, making sure that the bottom of the paper should be even
with the bottom of the wall and the ground. You can ask your adult volunteer to the climb the
ladder and help tape the paper to the wall.
4. Create a data table in your lab notebook so that you can keep track of the data that you
collect. It should look like the one shown below.
Amount of Baking Soda
Amount of Vinegar
Page 45
Trial
Launch Height (Feet)
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Preparing the Rocket
1. Now prepare the fuel for the rocket. Place 1 tsp. of baking soda in the bowl. Carefully add 1/8
tsp. of water to the baking soda and mix it in. This should wet the baking soda enough so that
you can pack it into the depression on the inside of the canister lid. Turn the film canister lid
over and pack the inside of the depression. Turn the lid upside-down and make sure that the
baking soda doesn't fall out. If the baking soda falls, out then add a little bit more water to the
baking soda and mix it in. Try to add only a minimal amount of water to the baking soda in
order to make it stick together inside the lid. Record the amount of baking soda that you used
in your lab notebook.
2. Have your volunteer hold the wrapped film canister and add 1 tsp. of vinegar to the wrapped
canister at a time, filling it almost to the top. You need to add as much vinegar to the canister
as possible without the vinegar and the baking soda coming into contact when you eventually
snap the lid onto the canister. This might take a little trial and error, but be patient and keep
trying. Keep careful track of and record the amount of vinegar in your lab notebook.
3. Go over to the area where you have taped your paper to the wall. Have your volunteer hold
the baking soda-packed lid in one hand and the wrapped canister in the other. Put on you
safety goggles. Stoop down near the bottom of the paper and quickly snap the lid onto the
canister. Turn the canister over so the lid is on the ground, and quickly move away. Wait for
the chemical reaction to occur (the time depends on the amount of baking soda and vinegar
you are using).
4. When the lid finally pops off, the rocket should overcome gravity and launch. You and your
volunteer should watch to see how high it goes and record the launch height in your lab
notebook.
5. Carefully rinse out the lid and canister with water. Make sure that the construction paper
doesn't get too wet.
6. Repeat steps 1–5 two more times, always recording the launch height in your lab notebook. It
is a good idea to perform at least three trials of each experiment so that you know your
results are accurate and reproducible.
7. Decrease the amount of vinegar in the canister by 1 tsp. and repeat steps 1–5 three times.
Record all of the data in your lab notebook.
8. Once again, reduce the amount of vinegar by 1 more tsp. and repeat steps 1–5 three times.
Always record all of the data in your lab notebook.
9. Now that you have investigated the effect of the amount of vinegar on launch height,
investigate the amount of baking soda required. Reduce the amount of baking soda to ½ tsp.
and repeat steps 1–5 three times, with the original amount of vinegar used for your first
vinegar trial. Adjust and use just enough water for the baking soda to stick to the depression
in the lid. Record all of your data in your lab notebook.
10. Repeat steps 1–5 three times using a ¼ tsp. of baking soda, with the original amount of
vinegar used for your first vinegar trial. Adjust and use just enough water for the baking soda
to stick to the depression in the lid. Record all of your data in your lab notebook.
Page 46
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Analyzing the Data
1. Average the launch height data for each row of baking soda and vinegar that you recorded in
the first table. Record the average data into a data table like the one shown below.
Amount of Baking Soda
Amount of Vinegar
Average Launch Height
2. Plot the data. You can make your plots by hand on graph paper, or if you would like to make
your plots online, try the following website: Create a Graph. Label the x-axis Amount of Vinegar
and the y-axis Average Launch Height. Plot the average launch height for the varying amounts
of baking soda on the same graph. You should now have a set of plots that will allow you to
determine the ideal amount of baking soda and vinegar. Which variable affects the launch
height the most, vinegar or baking soda?
Variations

Do you think that adding a cone and fins to your rocket will help it have a greater launch
height? Add a cone and see how that affects the launch height using the amount of baking
soda and vinegar that previously produced the highest launch. Then design and make fins for
your rocket out of construction paper and repeat the experiment using the amount of baking
soda and vinegar that previously produced the highest launch. Tape the cone on the opposite
end from the canister and the fins on the same end. Do the cone and fins help increase the
launch height?

Try using different containers instead of Fuji film canisters.

For more science project ideas in this area of science, see Chemistry Project Ideas.
Credits
Michelle Maranowski, PhD, Science Buddies
This science fair project is based on the following:
PBSKidsGo.org. (n.d.). Film Canister Rocket. Retrieved September 1 , 2009, from
http://pbskids.org/zoom/activities/sci/filmcanisterrocket.html

Fuji® is a registered trademark of Fuji Photo Film, Inc.

Scotch® is a registered trademark of 3M.
Page 47
Program of Study

Recognize Gravitation Universal Law.

Conceptualize velocity and tangential acceleration.

Recognize Kepler’s Laws.
Fall 2010
Overall Goal: Relate work with energy
Specific aims:

Define the concept of work in the context of physics as the scalar product between force and
displacement and define concepts of Kinetic Energy, Potential Energy and their relation with
work.
Materials:
1. Meter stick
2. Ball(bouncy, tennis,)
Procedure:
a. Hold the ball 1 meter in the air next to the meter stick; what is the balls potential energy and kinetic
energy?
b. Let the ball go, measure how high into the air the ball bounces.
c. Calculate the velocity of the ball, and the balls kinetic and potential energy just before it hits the
ground.
d. Calculate the balls potential energy at the apex of the first bounce.
e. Is the potential energy the same? Why or why not. Explain how the law of conservation of energy
holds true. How much work is done to bring the ball down, how much to bring it back up?
Other Info:
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
1
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (2𝑔ℎ) ⁄2
Created by Andy Hausner

Identify the concept of power and its units.

Identify Joules, erg as units of work, kinetic energy and potential energy.

Conservation of Mechanical Energy.

Recognize heat as a form or energy.
Page 48
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Physics II
Overall Goal: Describe fluids in motion and stationary state
Specific aims:

Identify the different states of matter (liquid, solid, gas).

Identify the differences between fluids and solids from their physic properties.

Describe different properties of fluids such as: viscosity, superficial tension, capillarity, cohesion,
adhesion, density, specific weight, pressure, hydrostatic Pressure, gauche pressure, atmospheric
pressure, absolute pressure.
Viscosity
Experiment: Race Your Marbles to Discover a Liquid's Viscosity
Abstract
How do you like your mashed potatoes? Thin and whipped smooth? Or thick and mashed into chunks? Your mouth
checks out not just the taste of your food, but its viscosity, or how it flows on your tongue, every time you take a
bite! In this science fair project, you'll learn what viscosity is, and how to measure it in common liquids around
your home.
Objective
To determine the viscosity of common liquids by measuring the transit time of marbles through the liquids.
Introduction
On a cold winter morning, have you ever tried to squeeze some honey out of the honey bear onto your toast? It's
pretty tough, huh? Honey is one of those liquids that is very sensitive to temperature. As the temperature goes
down, the viscosity, or resistance to flow, goes way up and you can squeeze and squeeze all you want, but very
little honey comes out. If you set the honey bear in a pan of warm water for a few minutes and try again, what
happens? One little squeeze and honey comes gushing out all over your toast. The viscosity, or resistance to flow,
goes way down as the temperature goes up.
As a measure of a liquid's resistance to flow, viscosity can be thought of as friction inside the liquid. If, for example,
you try to ride your bike with the hand brakes on (a form of friction), it is difficult to roll the bike forward. The
resistance to motion is high. Likewise, in highly viscous liquids (those with high internal friction), the resistance to
flow is high.
Viscosity is a very important quality of liquids that scientists, engineers, and even doctors are frequently trying to
measure and change. It is difficult, for example, to transport highly viscous crude oil through offshore pipelines, so
scientists and engineers use a variety of methods to try and lower the oil's resistance to flow through the pipelines.
Likewise, in medicine, doctors try to keep blood viscosity in the correct range. If blood is "too thick," or viscous, a
patient can develop blood clots. If blood is "too thin,"or lacks viscosity, however, then the patient is at risk for
bruising or bleeding events. Blood viscosity, like most things in medicine, has a happy medium.
Page 49
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Volcanologists (people who study volcanoes) have a big interest in viscosity, too. The viscosity of molten rock or
magma determines how easily a volcano will erupt, and what shape the lava flows and resulting mountains will
take on. A very thin and fluid magma erupts more easily and forms gentle mountain slopes, while a very thick
magma erupts explosively and forms a fat lava flow and steep mountain slopes. So, if you see a mountain formed
from a volcano, you can estimate the viscosity of the magma that formed it just by looking at the angle of its slope!
Common liquids around your house (thankfully) don't form mountain slopes though, so to measure their
viscosities, you have to use some other method. One of the oldest methods is the dropped-sphere method—a
glass marble or sphere of some other material is dropped into a column of a liquid. If the liquid is very viscous
(imagine cold honey), it will take a long time for the marble to drop to the bottom of the column. Dropping the
marble into a less viscous liquid (like water) will take much less time.
Viscosity of a liquid can be calculated from the time elapsed, provided that you know the height of the column and
the densities of the sphere and the liquid. Density is a measure of how "compact" something is. It is the ratio of
mass to volume, and is a measure of how much matter is packed into a space. Think of a 1-inch cube of bread.
Then think of a 1-inch cube of potato. The potato is denser than the bread (there is more "stuff" in the same
space). You can calculate density yourself for an object by using a scale to find out the object's mass and then
dividing that by the object's volume. You can also look up the densities of many common substances, like glass,
stainless steel, water, seawater, oils, etc. in materials tables.
Knowing the time it took to travel through the column of liquid, the height of the column, the density of the
sphere, and the density of the liquid, you can then calculate the viscosity of the liquid with the viscosity equation:
Equation 1:
Viscosity =
2(ΔP)ga2
9v
where:

Viscosity is in newton-seconds per meter squared (Nsec/m2).

Delta (Δ) P is the difference in density between the sphere and the liquid, and is in kilograms per meter
cubed (kg/m3).

g is the acceleration due to gravity and equals 9.81 meters per second squared (m/s2).

a is the radius of the sphere in meters (m).

v is the average velocity, defined as the distance the sphere falls, divided by the time it takes to fall in
meters per second (m/s).
So, now it's time to race some marbles and see if common liquids in your home are thick or thin!
Terms, Concepts and Questions to Start Background Research

Viscosity

Friction

Density
Page 50
Program of Study

Terminal velocity

Inverse relationship

Direct relationship
Fall 2010
Questions

What is liquid viscosity?

How does viscosity change (in general) with temperature?

Why is it important to understand viscosity?
Bibliography
This source discusses what viscosity is, its importance to understanding volcanology, and how to measure viscosity
in the laboratory:

Hawai'i Space Grant College, Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, University of Hawai'i.
(1996). Viscosity Teacher Page. Retrieved September 6, 2008, from
http://www.spacegrant.hawaii.edu/class_acts/ViscosityTe.html
Materials and Equipment

Tall, slender drinking glasses or glass jars with straight sides, equally sized (4)

Marker, water soluble (1)

Ruler, preferably metric

Glass marbles, equally sized (5)

Safe liquids to test (4), approximately 1/2 gallon of each, such as
o
Corn syrup
o
Honey
o
Cooking or vegetable oils
o
Glycerin
o
Seawater
o
Milk
o
Water
o
Molasses Note: It can be challenging to see the marble in the molasses. We recommend using
light molasses. You may also need to experiment with different colored marbles to find which
ones are most easy to see.

Stopwatch

Strainer

Liquid dish soap

Dish towel

Access to sink
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Program of Study

Graduated cylinder, at least 1,000-mL size (1); available at science supply stores, such as Carolina
Biological: www.carolina.com. Note: the larger the graduated cylinder, the easier it is to do testing.

Lab notebook

Helper
Fall 2010
Experimental Procedure
Preparing Your Glasses for the Marble Race
1.
Measure down about 2 cm from the top of each glass with the ruler, and mark the 2-cm location with the
water-soluble marker.
2.
Fill each glass with a different test liquid, all the way up to the 2-cm mark.
Racing Your Marbles
1.
Have a helper hold two marbles level with the tops of two glasses. You hold two marbles level with the
tops of two glasses also.
2.
Say, "Ready, Set, Go!" and then you and your helper should drop your marbles at the same time and see
which marble hits the bottom first and which one hits the bottom last. Record your observations in your
lab notebook. If you have trouble figuring out a clear winner between two liquids, race the marbles with
just those liquids a second and third time after first completing the next set of steps: Marble Retrieval and
Cleanup.
Figure 1. This drawing shows the setup of glasses and example liquids for the marble race.
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Program of Study
Fall 2010
Marble Retrieval and Cleanup
1.
Place the strainer inside a sink or over a large bowl set inside a sink.
2.
Pour the contents of each glass (the liquid and the marble) slowly into the strainer.
3.
Retrieve the marbles from the strainer and wash and dry both the marbles and the glasses.
Preparing the Graduated Cylinder to Measure the Viscosity of Each Liquid
1.
Fill the graduated cylinder up with one of the liquids to a level 5 cm below the top of the cylinder, as
shown in Figure 2.
2.
Measure down at least 2 cm below the surface of the liquid (as shown in Figure 2) and mark a starting line
on the graduated cylinder with the marker. The starting line needs to be lower than the surface of the
liquid to allow time for your marble to reach its terminal velocity before you start taking measurements.
3.
Measure up from the bottom of the graduated cylinder, approximately 5 cm, and mark an ending line on
the graduated cylinder with the marker. You don't want the ending line to be at the bottom of the
cylinder because the marble will slow down as it approaches the bottom, due to interactions with this
boundary.
4.
Measure the distance between the starting point and the ending point. Record this distance in your lab
notebook. This is the distance that you will use to calculate the speed of the marble as it travels through
the liquid. Remember, the average speed is equal to the distance traveled, divided by the time it took to
travel that distance. Now you're ready to test and get some travel times.
Figure 2. This drawing shows how to prepare the graduated cylinder for testing.
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Program of Study
Fall 2010
Testing Your Liquids
1.
You or the helper should hold a marble at the surface of one of the liquids.
2.
The other person should zero out the stopwatch.
3.
The person holding the stopwatch should say "Go!" and have the other person drop the marble. As the
marble passes the starting point, which was marked in the previous section, the person holding the
stopwatch should start the stopwatch. As the marble passes the ending point, which was marked in the
previous section, the person holding the stopwatch should stop it.
4.
Record the time elapsed in a data table.
5.
Repeat steps 1-4 of this section, with the same liquid and graduated cylinder, four more times with four
other marbles.
Measured Time Data Table
Liquid name
Trial 1 time (sec)
Trial 2 time (sec)
Trial 3 time (sec)
Trial 4 time (sec)
Trial 5 time (sec)
Average of times (sec)
Example: Corn syrup
Marble Retrieval and Cleanup
1.
Place the strainer inside a sink or over a large bowl set inside a sink.
2.
Pour the contents of the graduated cylinder (the liquid and the marbles) slowly into the strainer.
3.
Retrieve the marbles from the strainer and wash and dry the marbles and the graduated cylinder.
4.
Repeat the experiment up to this step, starting from Preparing the Graduated Cylinder to Measure the
Viscosity of Each Liquid, for the remaining test liquids.
Analyzing Your Data Chart
1.
Calculate the average for the five time trials for each liquid and enter it in your data table.
2.
Calculate the average velocity for each liquid by dividing the distance, measured in step 4 of Preparing the
Graduated Cylinder to Measure the Viscosity of Each Liquid, by the average time it took to travel that
distance. Record your calculation in a second data table.
3.
Remember Delta P from the viscosity equation, Equation 1? Calculate Delta P, the difference in densities
between the marble and each liquid, by using the table below. Record each Delta P calculation in your
data table. Note: If you tested a liquid that is not in this table, you will have to look up its density online,
or calculate the density yourself, using a scale.
Common Approximate Densities (kg/m3)
Water
1000
Page 54
Program of Study
Corn syrup
1380
Molasses
1400
Honey (room temperature)
1500
Vegetable or cooking oils
Fall 2010
920
Glycerin
1260
Ocean water
1030
Milk
1030
Glass marble
2800
Stainless steel
7800
4.
If you know the diameter of your marbles, divide the diameter by 2 to get the radius of the marbles. If you
don't know the diameter of your marbles, measure the diameter with a ruler, and then divide by 2 to get
the radius. Record the radius of your marbles in your lab notebook.
5.
Calculate the viscosity of each liquid using Equation 1 from the Introduction. Record the calculations in a
data table.
Viscosity Data Table
Liquid name
Calculated average velocity (m/s)
Delta P (kg/m3)
Viscosity (kg/meter sec)
Example: Corn syrup
6.
Compare your viscosity test results with the marble race results. Do they match up and make sense? Did
the liquids with the lowest viscosities win the race? Plot the viscosity of each liquid on the y-axis and the
calculated average velocity on the x-axis. Is the relationship between viscosity and velocity inverse or
direct?
Variations

Choose one liquid and repeat the experiment using different sizes and densities of spheres. For example,
try different diameters of glass marbles, stainless steel balls, or BB's. (Note: For your viscosity calculations,
the density of a stainless steel ball bearing is 7,800 kg/m3. If the diameter of any of your spheres is more
than half the radius of the graduated cylinder, you should purchase a larger-diameter graduated cylinder
to avoid having the spheres interact with the sides of the cylinder.) Are the velocities of the different
spheres different? What about the measured viscosities from those velocities? Are they the same? Obtain
some statistics, such as the standard deviation, on your measured viscosities.
Page 55
Program of Study

Choose a very temperature-sensitive liquid, such as honey, and evaluate how viscosity changes as a
function of temperature.

For more science project ideas in this area of science, see Chemistry Project Ideas.
Fall 2010
Credits
Kristin Strong, Science Buddies
Edited by Peter Boretsky, Lockheed Martin
This project follows much of the experimental procedure outlined in the following source:

Hawai'i Space Grant College, Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, University of Hawai'i.
(1996). Viscosity Teacher Page. Retrieved September 6, 2008, from
http://www.spacegrant.hawaii.edu/class_acts/Viscosity.html
Overall Goal: Differentiate heat and temperature
Specific aims:

Identify different concepts of heat, temperature, kinetic energy.

Recognize the following scales of temperature and their units: Fahrenheit, Celsius, Kelvin, and
Rankine.

Identify the different mechanism of heat transfer: radiation, convection, conduction.

Recognize absorbed heat vs. dissipated heat and its relation with temperature and mass.
Experiment: Just Keep Cool—How Evaporation Affects Heating and Cooling
Abstract
When we get hot, we sweat. The physiological role of sweat is to cool us down. When the water
evaporates, it removes energy from our bodies. This sort of evaporative cooling can also be used to
cool homes, using what are referred to as swamp coolers. Evaporative cooling is also a potential
source of energy waste in the kitchen because it increases the time it takes to heat water. In this
chemistry science fair project, you will study how a variety of things cool down, whether for better or
worse, using the process of evaporation.
Objective
The objective of this chemistry science fair project is to investigate several aspects of evaporative
cooling.
Introduction
Page 56
Program of Study
Fall 2010
Evaporation is the process by which molecules in a liquid escape into the gas phase. In any liquid,
such as a glass of water at room temperature, the molecules in the liquid are moving. They bump into
each other as they meander about the liquid. The speed with which they move depends on the
temperature—in hotter liquids, the molecules move faster. The average speed depends on
temperature, but around this average speed, there will be some molecules moving faster (more
energetically), and some moving slower. When the more-energetic molecules are near the liquid's
surface, they can escape into the gas above. As more and more of the most energetic molecules
evaporate into the gas, the average energy of the molecules left behind decreases, so the liquid cools.
The rate of cooling caused by evaporation depends on the rate at which molecules can escape from
the liquid. You might have noticed that when you pour rubbing alcohol on your skin, it cools your skin
more than when you pour water on it. This reflects the greater volatility, or tendency to evaporate,
of the rubbing alcohol.
The Experimental Procedure for this science fair project has three sections. They might seem
unconnected at first, but each is related by the underlying concept of evaporative cooling. In the
first section of the Experimental Procedure, you will compare evaporative cooling caused by water,
rubbing alcohol, and cooking oil. The cooling effect studied in this part of the procedure is the basis for
swamp coolers. In these cooling devices, outside air is blown over a wet surface and then into the
home. You are familiar with the principle if you have ever had wet clothes on with a breeze blowing—
the evaporation of water cools you off, just as it cools the wet surface in the swamp cooler. Thermal
energy in the hot air is "extracted" and used to convert some of the liquid water into water vapor.
Because energy is used to evaporate water, the air is cooled after passing over the wet surface. The
cool air is then circulated around the interior of the building.
In the second section of the procedure, you will look at the temperature change that occurs when
water (sweat) evaporates off of skin. Sweating is a physiological response that uses evaporative
cooling as a mechanism to remove excess heat.
In the third section, you will look at evaporative cooling in the kitchen. When heat is applied to water
to make it boil, some of the energy can be lost to evaporative cooling. You will investigate how
evaporative cooling affects boiling time by comparing how long it takes to boil a pot of water both with
and without a lid.
Terms, Concepts and Questions to Start Background Research

Evaporation

Volatility

Evaporative cooling

Swamp cooler

Energy
Questions

Why are some liquids more volatile than others?

Swamp coolers are most often used in areas that are hot and dry. Would a swamp cooler work
in hot, muggy conditions?

Dogs do not sweat, but is their cooling mechanism similar to that of humans?
Bibliography
Page 57
Program of Study
Fall 2010

Chem4kids.com. (2007). Evaporation of Liquids. Retrieved October 23, 2008, from
http://www.chem4kids.com/files/matter_evap.html

Air & Water, Inc. (2007). Swamp Cooling—Not Just for Swamps. Retrieved November 4, 2008,
from http://www.air-n-water.com/faq_swamp.htm
Materials and Equipment

Measuring cup

Water

Rubbing alcohol

Cooking oil, such as olive oil

Plastic plates, disposable (4)

Paper towels (12)

Clear tape

Ballpoint pen

Infrared thermometer; available online, from websites like www.amazon.com

Stopwatch

Small fan; if you do not have a small fan, you will need an extra plate.

Pots to boil water, identical, 2-qt. size or larger, with lids (2); you can use one pot repeatedly
if you do not have identical pots.

Stovetop

A helper

Lab notebook

Graph paper
Disclaimer: Science Buddies occasionally provides information (such as part numbers, supplier
names, and supplier weblinks) to assist our users in locating specialty items for individual projects.
The information is provided solely as a convenience to our users. We do our best to make sure that
part numbers and descriptions are accurate when first listed. However, since part numbers do change
as items are obsoleted or improved, please send us an email if you run across any parts that are no
longer available. We also do our best to make sure that any listed supplier provides prompt, courteous
service. Science Buddies receives no consideration, financial or otherwise, from suppliers for these
listings. (The sole exception is any Amazon.com or Barnes&Noble.com link.) If you have any
comments (positive or negative) related to purchases you've made for science fair projects from
recommendations on our site, please let us know. Write to us at scibuddy@sciencebuddies.org.
Experimental Procedure
Evaporative Cooling in Buildings
1. Fill a measuring cup with tap water and allow it to come to room temperature.
a.
The rubbing alcohol and the oil should also be at room temperature.
b.
This step is just to ensure that the liquids are at the same temperature at the start of
the experiment.
2. Place four disposable plastic plates, with the up sides down, on a work surface.
Page 58
Program of Study
a.
Fall 2010
Use a waterproof surface (such as tile or laminate) since you will be using alcohol that
could damage wood finish.
3. Fold each paper towel in half twice, so that each has four layers.
4. Place a folded paper towel on top of each plate.
a.
The plates keep the towels from being in contact with the work surface, which would
affect their temperature. You could also use StyrofoamTM or other insulating material.
5. Tape the edges of the paper towels to the plates.
6. Label the paper towels 1–4.
a.
In the next step, the paper towels will be treated as follows:

1: no liquid

2: water

3: rubbing alcohol

4: oil
7. Start the stopwatch.
8. Take the temperature of the paper towels with the infrared thermometer.
a.
Take three readings of each paper towel.
b.
Keep the direction and distance between the thermometer and each plate the same.
c.
Record the temperatures and times in a data table in your lab notebook.
9. Pour water on paper towel #2, just enough to wet it.
10. Pour rubbing alcohol on paper towel #3, just enough to wet it.
11. Pour oil on paper towel #4, just enough to wet it.
12. Take the temperature of each paper towel, and record the temperature and time in your lab
notebook.
13. Repeat the temperature readings three more times, at 2-minute intervals.
14. Which paper towel has the lowest temperature? What was the largest temperature difference
between two paper towels that you noted? Record all observations in your lab notebook.
15. Repeat steps 1-14 two more times, with fresh paper towels, but you can rinse and reuse the
plates. Average the results in your final report.
16. Repeat steps 1-15 three more times, only for these trials, with the fan gently blowing over the
paper towels. If you do not have a fan, use a paper plate as a fan. Your helper can fan as you
take and record the temperature at 2-minute intervals. Did the fan change the results? Why?
Evaporative Cooling on Skin
In this section, you will look at the cooling effect of evaporation on human skin.
1. Mark a small spot on your arm with a ballpoint pen.
2. Measure the temperature of the skin on your forearm near the pen mark.
a.
As in the section before, take two more readings and average them.
3. Pour some room-temperature water on your arm.
4. Take the temperature of your skin near the mark. Record all data in your lab notebook.
5. Take a temperature reading every minute until your arm dries.
6. Repeat steps 1-5 two more times.
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Program of Study
Fall 2010
7. Now repeat steps 1-6 of this section three times, this time using the fan or helper with the
paper plate to blow air on your arm. Average all the results.
8. Graph your results.
9. What temperature change did you see?
10. Repeat steps 1-9 of this section using rubbing alcohol. What is the difference in the
temperatures between water and alcohol?
Evaporative Cooling When Boiling Water
You have looked at two beneficial aspects of evaporative cooling—one used to cool buildings and one
used to cool people. In this section, you will look at a situation where evaporative cooling is a source
of energy waste and thus, something to avoid.
1. Add 2 qt. (8 cups) of tap water to each pot.
2. Check the starting temperature of the water with the infrared thermometer. Record the time
and temperatures in your lab notebook.
3. Start two burners on your stovetop. They should be set to the same setting.
4. Cover one of the pots with a lid, but not the other.
5. Put the pots on the burners.
6. Use the infrared thermometer to record the temperature of the water every 3 minutes.
o
Measure the temperature of the open pot by pointing the thermometer at the surface
of the water.
o
Measure the temperature of the covered pot by briefly removing the lid and pointing
the thermometer at the surface of the water.
7. Determine how long it takes for the water in each pot to come to a boil.
8. Stop taking the temperature of a pot when it is at a full boil. Use your judgment as to when
this point is reached.
9. Repeat two more times and average your results.
10. Graph your results. Put "Covered" and "Uncovered" on the x-axis, and "Time to boil" on the yaxis. What was the time-to-boil difference between the two pots, in minutes and in percent
change?
Variations

Try other liquids for the first section, such as sugar or salt solutions, nail polish remover, etc.

If you have access to a sensitive scale, weigh the paper towel with the alcohol during the
course of the procedure. Find a relationship between weight change and temperature. For
example, "on average, 1 gram (g) of alcohol was evaporated every minute to keep the paper
towel 3 degrees cooler than room temperature."

Demonstrate how a swamp cooler works in a model house made out of cardboard. Look up
some design ideas online. Remember, the air coming in from the fan needs an open window or
door to escape out of. This is a consideration for real houses with swamp coolers.

Do some research on the energy used by your stove and calculate how much energy you used
to boil the water on your stovetop with and without the lid. You might look at the gas meter to
estimate how much gas is used. Make some rough guesses to come up with an estimate of
how much energy could be saved nationally if everyone used a lid on a pot of water set to boil.

Devise a method for reliably measuring small changes in temperature due to evaporation of
low-volatility liquids, such as oil.
Page 60
Program of Study

Fall 2010
For more science project ideas in this area of science, see Chemistry Project Ideas.
Credits
David Whyte, PhD, Science Buddies

StyrofoamTM is a registered trademark of The Dow Chemical Company.
Overall Goal: Understand electricity laws
Specific aims:

Identify basic electrostatic concepts such as: electrostatic charge, insulators, and conductors.

Identify concepts as electric field, electric potential energy, and electric potential.

Identify characteristics of different kinds of circuits: parallel, series, mixed.
 Solve problems using Ohm's Law.
Understanding Circuits and Ohm’s Law
Introduction:
Electricity flows through circuits. An electrical circuit is a closed loop that consists of an electric source and an
electrical load such as a light bulb that are connected by a conductor such as a wire. The circuit can be opened
or closed with the help of a switch. Circuits can be used in science fair experiments to demonstrate the
behavior of electricity.
It is important to note that some circuits are designed to allow electricity to flow freely whereas some are
deliberately designed so that the flow is slowed down or hindered. This hindrance is called resistance. There
are loads of science fair experiments that can be based on the concept of electrical resistance.
Circuits that are designed for a limited flow or electricity are fitted with an electronic unit called a resistor. A
resistor slows down the flow of electricity according to Ohm's law. Ohm's law defines the relationship between
resistance (R), electrical current (I) and voltage (V). It is named in honor of Georg Simon Ohm who formulated
it.
If the current is too strong then it can damage the LED or the bulb filament. Therefore resistors are useful in
limiting the current so that just the right amount of current flows through an LED or a bulb to light it up.
Resistors are also used to control the quantity of electricity moving through a circuit. Did you know that
resistors are used in dimmer switches and fan regulators?
In this experiment, I will teach you how to use a pencil as a resistor. More importantly, this experiment will
help you understand how changing the length of the pencil affects the amount of current flowing through a
circuit and results in the dimming or brightening of a light bulb.
Materials:
You will require a few pencils, a 9 V battery, a 9 V light bulb, insulated wire, a few alligator clips, an extra length
of wire, a popsicle stick and a ruler. You will also require a coping saw and a pencil sharpener.
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Program of Study
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Procedure:
1. Connect the battery to the bulb in series with the help of wires and set up a circuit on a flat wooden board.
Do not complete the circuit, but leave two tips of the wire free. Attach alligator clips to these free ends. You
must always use insulated alligator clips during science fair experiments. Now you can complete this circuit by
touching both the alligator clips. Go ahead, try it. If the bulb lights, your circuit is working.
2. Next, you must cut the pencils into pieces of different sizes; say 3 inches, 5 inches and 7 inches. Sharpen
these pieces at both ends. These are your pencil resistors.
3. Now, make a neat table with two rows, and as many columns as pencil pieces. The row headers can be
'Pencil Length' and 'Bulb Brightness.'
4. Measure each pencil piece from one tip to the other and write down the lengths in the 'Pencil Length' row.
5. Next, clamp each pencil piece between the two alligator clips. Note that the alligator clips need to be
clamped to the pencil lead only.
6. Observe the brightness of the lit up bulb for each pencil piece and rate the brightness from 1 to 5 such that
1 could stand for dark and 5 for bright. Write your ratings in the 'Bulb Brightness' row under the respective
lengths.
7. Now rate the extra wire and the popsicle stick, which are your positive control and negative control
respectively.
Reference: http://www.squidoo.com/Easy-Science-fair-experiments-that-get-good-grades-Project-6-Circuits
Overall Goal: Relate electricity and magnetism
Specific aims:

Know historic background in the field of electromagnetism. (Hans Cristian Oersted, Michel
Faraday, Andre Marie Ampere, George Simon Ohm, James Clerk Maxwell)

Establish the characteristics of magnets and their magnetic interactions and explain the concept
of magnetic field.
Materials:
1. Insulated copper wire (1 meter)
2. Iron rod (nail, screwdriver, any magnetic metal)
3. Battery (D, maybe 9v)
4. Scissors or wire strippers
Procedure:
Tightly wrap the wire around the metal rod, leaving several inches at either end to connect to the battery.
Attaching the battery runs a current through the wire which creates an magnetic field down the center of the
metal rod.
Other info:
a)
The more tight the turns are, the stronger the magnetic field will be.
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Program of Study
b) Heat produced is proportional to the voltage squared.
c) For low voltage (1.5) an uninsulated wire may be used for short time periods go get a tighter
wrapping and stronger magnetic field.
d) This experiment relates electric current to magnetic fields, the right hand rule can be applied to
determine the direction of the magnetic field.
Refrences:
1. http://education.jlab.org/qa/electromagnet.html
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