Running Head: CELEBRITY/FAN DISCLOSURE THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA
Celebrity/Fan Disclosure through Social Media
Alison M Helf
Carroll University
13 December 2012
Celebrity/Fan Disclosure through Social Media
Abstract
The current study researches how celebrities use social media to disclose personal
information about themselves and how fans reciprocate that disclosure. Through two 3-point
scales and studying the personal Facebook and Twitter pages of three celebrities, the research
resulted in finding that Facebook is used by celebrities to disclose different kinds of information
to their fans. Fans reciprocate in a type of an open forum with little regard to the disclosure in the
initial post in hoping to receive further reciprocation from the celebrity. It was found on Twitter,
that more intimate and personal communication takes place between celebrity and fan with
multiple exchanges between the two.
Key Terms: Celebrity, Fan, Self-disclosure, Personal-disclosure, Facebook, Twitter, Social
Media, Reciprocation, Celebrity-Fan Relationship
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Introduction
Disclosing information to close friends is a common practice in personal communication.
With the recent uprising of the Internet and use of social media, self-disclosure is being used in
status updates, tweets, blogs and many other social forums. Social media has also expanded
beyond just the common people- now companies, politicians and celebrities are also among the
majority of social media users. Celebrities use social media to brand themselves, promote their
product, or to use for their personal means. Fans follow celebrities that they like and respond to
their comments and posts.
Self-disclosure from celebrities sets insight into the personal world that the common
public does not get to see. This study focuses on how celebrities use social media to disclose
personal information and how fans respond to that self-disclosure.
The celebrity-fan relationship has expanded with the Internet bang. Celebrities thrive off
their fans, and realistically would be nowhere without them. Social media allows for the
communication between the two, to be more connected and probable. This form of
communication has had little scholarly research.
Facebook and Twitter are two of the most popular forms of social media today. Facebook
is a social media site that allows users to connect and network with other users and friends. In
Facebook, users can also create a status. This status allows an unlimited amount of characters as
well the capability to attach or post a photo, link or video. Facebook users must be friends with
another user to see information on their Facebook news feed. A news feed displays interactions
between friends, birthdays, events, online photo albums and status updates. Users can also view
statuses by clicking on the individual’s Facebook page. Recently Facebook allows users to “like”
or to subscribe to a page, like a celebrity or company for example. If a user “likes” or subscribes
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to a celebrity or company, their posts will still appear on their Facebook news feed, however the
user will not be able to view all of the subscribed/liked individual’s information.
Subscribed/liked users can also be responded to, liked, or shared.
Twitter is an information or status-posting server that only allows 140 characters per post.
Twitter also has the capability of posting photos, links, and videos into these posts or “tweets.” A
Twitter user then can choose to follow different Twitter users. These followed user’s posts then
appear on their Twitter feed, which is updated every time a followed member makes a post.
Users can view tweets that are on their Twitter feed or by clicking on the desired individual’s
page and viewing all of their tweets. Users then can respond to each other’s tweets, retweet or
repost, or favorite a tweet they might like. The general public, companies, corporations, and
celebrities use Twitter.
Through social media and the celebrity-fan relationship, and the world of Twitter and
Facebook, statuses and Tweets can be posted to their followed, subscribed or liked fan
community. This then invites a response of some kind whether it is a retweet, a favorite, a like, a
share or even a more personalized comment. This kind of social media relationship takes over
the world of fan mail and connects these two relationships through an instantaneous form of
communication through the Internet giving the idea to the fan, and even the celebrity, that a
connection can be formed between the two. This study can result to find how self-disclosure
from celebrities influences or does not influence traffic on their social media sites as well as how
personal information can manipulate a fan base to reciprocate.
Literature Review
It is safe to say that the overwhelming boost in social media is one of the most efficient and
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groundbreaking forms of communication to date. Many kinds of social interactions take place on
such social media websites from college kids to business people to celebrities (Eley & Tilley,
2009). The fan-to-celebrity and celebrity-to-fan relationship is a new way of making the social
and personal connection to their followers. Self-disclosure is defined as any information about a
person which is not public knowledge and which is intentionally communicated to another
person (Cozby, 1973). By disclosing information (being personal or public) and showing the
personal connection, celebrities have created a new way to reach their fan base.
The four areas reviewed as a part of this study are self-disclosure and relationships through
Internet communication, the use of social media and self-disclosure, social media users, and
celebrities as social media users.
Self-Disclosure and Relationships through Internet Communication
Jiang, Bazarova, & Hancock (2010) discuss the link between self-disclosure through
computer communication with support from the hyperpersonal model (Walther, 1996) and social
penetration theory (Altman & Taylor, 1973). The hyperpersonal model (Walther, 1996)
investigates how computer-mediated communication differs and compares to face-to-face
communication. Hyperpersonal communication occurs when the sender can manage and
manipulate their outgoing messages to the receiver, of which would not be possible in face-toface communication (Walther, 1996). Social penetration theory (Altman & Taylor, 1973) is the
theory in which through self-disclosure, intimate relationships can be built through breadth and
depth; breadth referring to amount of information disclosed and depth dealing with intimacy of
information disclosed. “The positive association between self-disclosure and intimacy
development is related to the notion that self-disclosures carry certain relational values that
express intimacy and solicit reciprocation” (Altman & Taylor, 1973, as cited in Jiang, Bazarova
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& Hancock, 2010, p 60).
To further the research, Jiang, Bazarova & Hancock’s (2010) study shows that high selfdisclosure leads to more intimacy in computer-mediated communication (CMC) than face-toface (FtF) communication. Experimenting with a control sender to receiver in FtF and CMC with
differing amounts of self-disclosure proved that the medium in which was used also had effect
on self-disclosure. Although the participants felt intimate in FtF and CMC in high self-disclosure
communication, the effect of the self-disclosure in CMC showed higher statistics of effectiveness
(Jiang et al, 2010). Self-disclosure is commonly expressed through the Internet and often
improves relationships.
The Use of Social Media and Self-Disclosure
Self-disclosure can occur through many computer-mediated mediums, including Facebook,
an online social networking service that allows the user to create an online profile, post
information, and connect with other users and other various communication services. Palmieri,
Prestano, Gandely, Overton & Zhang (2012) investigates disclosure via Facebook and how it
helps reduce uncertainty. The uncertainty reduction theory (Berger & Calabrese, 1975) is that
communication with others reduces uncertainty about said individual, which is the basic goal of
interpersonal relationships. The study also relates to social penetration theory (Altman & Taylor,
1973) in breadth and depth of self-disclosed information, as mentioned previously. Palmieri et al.
(2012), study reviews that most researched information connects self-disclosure and uncertainty
reduction in FtF relationships, not CMC. The study examines how breadth and depth of selfdisclosure on Facebook affect uncertainty reduction. Through controlled Facebook pages with
varied amounts of disclosed information, a student views the pages then answers a questionnaire.
The more information disclosed the more certain the students were about the Facebook “user”
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(Palermi et al, 2012). Facebook is one common social media site that facilitates self-disclosure,
which supports certainty and encourages further communication and interpersonal relationships.
Personal Branding in Social Media
Twitter is an online information network allowing users to Tweet or post anything up to
140 characters. Marwick and boyd (2010) investigates how Twitter users tweet to their audiences
and whom the users think their audiences are. Different users with a variety of followers respond
to the tweeted questionnaire posted by Marwick and boyd. Marwick and boyd find that the users
believe their followers to be family, friends and themselves. Twitter users tweet mostly for
attention, including through personal disclosure and creating and promoting a “personal
brand”(Marwick and boyd, 2010). “By necessity, Twitter users maintain impressions by
balancing personal/public information, avoiding certain topics, and maintaining authenticity”
(Marwick and boyd, 2010, p.11). Social media users disclose information that is self-promoting
and seeks attention.
Celebrities and Fans through Social Media
Technically any individual that uses social media is a user; therefore a celebrity or a fan
can be defined as a social media user. Marwick and boyd (2011) look into the way celebrities
“perform celebrity” The study reviews the three ways a celebrity performs on Twitter; public
recognition and fan maintenance, affiliation, intimacy, and authenticity and sincerity. Some
celebrity Twitter pages are created by the agent, manager, website, a hired individual or the
actual celebrity themselves. Different “actual” users might use the site in a different way; to
promote a show or song they created, to drive individuals/followers to the website, or to share
basic information. The popularity of the celebrity also effects the overall communication; a
celebrity with more Twitter followers tends to be “safer” to oblige to a larger audience (Marwick
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and boyd, 2011)
“The study of celebrity culture has primarily focused on fans as separate from celebrities, but the
ability of famous people to read and reply to fans has given rise to new sets of practices and
interactions” (Marwick and boyd, 2011, p 154). Social media now allows for fans and celebrities
to interact. According to Marwick and boyd (2011) a fan responds to a celebrity to display a
(positive or negative) relationship and in hope for celebrity reciprocation. A relationship hopes to
be formed from both sides of this celebrity-fan communication; however they are different kinds
of relationships.
To Continue
In concluding the above articles, self-disclosure occurs online and through social media.
This computer-mediated communication supports the hyperpersonal model (Walther, 1996) and
social penetration theory (Altman & Taylor, 1973); computer communication is stronger than
face-to-face communication and through self-disclosure facilitates to a more intimate
relationship. These relationships, through self-disclosure, also reduce uncertainty and provide an
assumption of greater knowledge about the individual. Social media users create personal
branding when disclosing to the Internet of unknown audiences. Celebrities and fans have new
relationships because of social media; one that attempts to upkeep image while the other attempts
to build a relationship. In this complicated celebrity-fan connection, how does self-disclosure fit
in? How comfortable are celebrities with social media and deep personal information?
In the current study we will answer the questions: How do celebrities use social media to
disclose information to their fan base? How does the fan base reciprocate the information
disclosed? Through this study it is hypothesized that the amount of personal disclosure by the
celebrity positively correlates with that of their fans disclosure in response.
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Methodology
Using content analysis as a base for this study was the best form of methodology. By
choosing three celebrities of the same celebrity genre with similar social media statistics, data
can be collected an assessed. This method is appropriate because information from all sources is
displayed for the public on social media sites, which can then be compared and analyzed. A 3point disclosure scale was created and was used by both the celebrity posts and fan posts.
Participants
The celebrities’ chosen were all musicians with similar social media and musician
statistics. Hayley Williams, the lead singer of the punk-rock band Paramore, currently has
2,852,761 followers on Twitter and 2.3 million likes on Facebook. Mark Hoppus is one of the
founders and singers in the popular 1990’s band, Blink 182. He currently has 2,284,284
followers on Twitter and 784,000 Facebook subscribers. Sara Bareilles is a solo performer who
has been on primetime television on The Sing Off as well as held top chart positions with her
music. She currently has 2,560,125 followers on Twitter and 999,000 Facebook likes on her fan
page. These three musicians are within the top 300-400 followed on Twitter. This allows them
not to be extremely followed to a point where they must watch and edit everything they post,
however they are not trying to gain new followers by constantly posting about their new music
and products. They are more likely to connect with their following base. None of these musicians
have any current hits, or are on tour.
Procedure
The methodology is based around two 3-point scales; a 3-point disclosure scale and a 3point reciprocation scale. The disclosure scale was used on the celebrity’s tweets and Facebook
posts. The reciprocation scale was used on the responses by the fans of the celebrity.
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Content analysis was the best method for this research. The Internet collected the
information and then the different posts were analyzed. This method allows me to come in
contact and research a celebrity-fan culture without having any personal communication with the
test subjects. This method, in turn, has little error to deal with in terms of environment or
survey/interview administrator concerns. The subjects did not know they were being analyzed
which allowed the content to be unbiased.
On Facebook and Twitter a 3 on the scale was recorded when a personal belief or thought
was posted. This would be a post when the reader would learn something about the Facebook
user or Tweet-er that they wouldn’t have learned by research or by common knowledge. A 2 on
the disclosure scale was recorded when the post had daily life meaning for example, a “Today I
did…” “I did, or am doing…” or a general observation for example “It’s sunny outside” type of
post. These daily actions cover the majority of the posts. A 1 on the scale was recorded when the
musician posted self-promotional information such as a link to purchase merchandise or music. It
was also noted when a photo, link or video was attached in any of the tweets or status posts.
Whether a tweet was a retweet or quoted tweet was also recorded. A retweet is a post initially
dispatched from a different Twitter user that is reposted from a separate user. A quoted tweet is a
different users tweet reposted with a personal response included. (Appendix A)
The reciprocation scale for Facebook and Twitter also used a 3-point scale. A 3 on the
scale represented a response that had personal information or action regarding the responder; an
“I think…” “I am…” or “ I did… too”. A 2 was recorded as a general reply or comment to the
post. A 1 represented any kind of negative comment or comment about wanting to be retweeted
at or followed by the celebrity (Twitter). (Appendix B)
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Instrumentation
Thirty of the posts from the celebrity’s Facebook pages were also documented along with
the number of “likes”, number of shares, and number of comments. The first and then every 20th
comment thereafter was recorded for the reciprocation responses. One month’s worth of tweets
from all three celebrity’s Twitter sites were analyzed, as were the responses to those tweets.
Recording the first and then every other Twitter response randomized the responses, yet still had
data if there was only one responded post. The post’s numbers of retweets, number of favorites
and number of comments were also recorded, and if the tweet had any photos, videos or websites
attached. The reciprocation-scaled comments were then averaged and the most common
response was recorded for Facebook and Twitter.
The celebrities used Twitter on average at least once a day, while Facebook was used
sparingly. Therefore, recording more tweets than Facebook posts is justified.
Data was collected using recording sheets. Two separate sheets were used, one for
Facebook and one for Twitter. The Facebook sheet had columns for date, disclosure number,
link/photo/video, number of likes, number of shares, number of comments, and reciprocation
numbers (Appendix C). The Twitter record sheet had columns for the date, if it was a retweet or
quoted tweet, disclosure number, link/photo/video, number of retweets by other Twitter users,
number of favorites by other Twitter users, and reciprocation numbers (Appendix D).
Each post was recorded after at least 5 days had passed by the initial posted date. This gave
time for individuals who do not check their social media daily to respond and react to a post a
few days late, but not late enough where it would be passed by or not shown on a news feed or
Twitter feed. In order to prevent bias, the disclosure number of the posts were first recorded then
the numbers of likes, favorites, retweets, etc.
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Analysis
Data was analyzed using Pearson’s Correlation test between different variables to find
what kind of relationship, if any, existed between the celebrities’ disclosure and the amount of
reciprocated information from Facebook and Twitter.
Results
These questions drove the research: (a) How do celebrities use social media to disclose
information to their fan base? (b) How does the fan base reciprocate the information disclosed?
Through using two different social media sites, Facebook and Twitter, the results will be
investigated.
Facebook
Through celebrities Facebook pages, the research questions can be presented through
Pearson’s correlation test between a few different variables; the celebrities disclosure level (from
the 3-point disclosure scale), whether a picture, link or video was found, amount of likes, amount
of shares, amount of comments, the mode of reciprocation comments (from the 3-point
reciprocation scale), and the average of the reciprocated comments. It was found that there is no
significant correlation between the celebrity’s disclosure and the fans reciprocation mode or
average, (Mode r=.096, n=76, p<.407, Average r=.118, n=86, p<.279) therefore, accepting the
null hypothesis for Facebook.
However, even though the main focus of disclosure has no significant correlation,
correlations were found in other variables of the research. Focusing more on the second research
question, there was a correlation found between celebrities’ disclosure and the amount of likes
received, r=.296, n=86, p<.006.
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The rest of the correlation results returned with no significance. Celebrity disclosure and
amount of shares resulted as, r=.162, n=86, p<.136, celebrity disclosure and number of Facebook
comments resulted as, r=.169, n=86, p<.121.
It was shown on Facebook that of the 85 posts, 14 did not have a photo. Of that, 12 of them
were links to other pages, 2 were a video and one had no external medium attached.
Twitter
More promising results were found from the Twitter data regarding the research questions.
The variables researched from Twitter were the celebrities’ disclosure, number of favorites of the
post, number of retweets of the post, number of reciprocated comments and the mode and
average of the reciprocated comments. There was a positive correlation between celebrity
disclosure and fan reciprocation average, r=.134, n=258, p<.031. There was no significant
correlation found between disclosure and reciprocation mode, r=.127, n=208, p<.068.
Focusing on the second research question, There was a positive correlation between
celebrity disclosure and number of favorites, r=.269, n=347, p<.000. There was also a positive
correlation between celebrity disclosure and fan retweets, r=.306, n=347, p<.000. The only
negative correlation was found between celebrity disclosure and number of reciprocated
comments/tweets, r=-.007, n=298, p<.904.
Photos were used less on Twitter; 64 of the posts had photos, 16 had links, 8 had videos.
Discussion
Two very different outcomes resulted from the present study, based on the form of social
media. It was hypothesized that there would be a positive correlation between celebrity
disclosure and fan reciprocation. This hypothesis was rejected and accepted in the two forms of
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social media.
Facebook
Facebook showed to be busy and had ongoing comments and reactions throughout every
single post by the celebrity. Because Facebook acted more as an open forum, many fans did not
comment about the topic of the post, which explains, why there was no correlation found
between the average and mode of the reciprocation. There was a correlation found between the
celebrity disclosure and the number of likes of the post, therefore, the more personal information
shared by the celebrity, the more fans liked the post. Unfortunately, from a marketing standpoint,
these are not published onto a fans personal pages, where as a shared post or a comment can be.
It was found in the number of shares and number of comments there was no significant
correlation.
Overall Facebook is a common popular social medium; however its popularity does not
support an environment for personal connections and relationships to be formed in typed
communication. “Clicked communication” or the matter of clicking to express something such as
liking, and sharing has some successes.
Twitter
As mentioned, very different statistics were found for the Twitter data. There was a
positive relationship found between celebrity disclosure and fan reciprocated mode, therefore the
more personal a celebrity’s post was, reciprocation was also personal. Positive relationships
found in numbers of favorites and retweets prove that Twitter is a much more personal form of
social media. The number of comments had a small negative correlation with disclosure for
reasons that one might theorize had to do with a fan not knowing how to respond to something
personal in form of typed words.
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Social penetration theory (Altman & Taylor, 1973) is fully supported in the Twitter
research. Through the amount and depth of disclosure, more reciprocation between fan and
celebrity was found and facilitated in the same fan users returning to respond to tweets and the
celebrity responding to them again resulting in a form of a relationship between the two.
Twitter has been shown to have a much closer-knit form of communication with fewer
comments per post, yet more meaningful and reciprocated posts. This extremely popular form of
social media forms better relationships through self-disclosure though its smaller numbers.
Limitations
During researching a few limitations of the study arose. Technical issues are always a
concern when studying content analysis on the Internet. A few Tweets would not load which
caused some issues while recording data. To resolve this issue, restarting the page several times
made the data appear. In the same terms, different likes and favorites and retweet numbers varied
throughout data recording time. Fan Twitter accounts were something unexpected. A group of
fans from different countries held sites focused on Paramore and Hayley Williams. These twitter
pages tweeted the same thing multiple times per post asking to be followed and responded to.
Another limitation found, was when a celebrity responded to his or her own tweets. When this
occurred, the comment was skipped over and data continued to be recorded.
Another limitation found was that the average number of responses varied between the
celebrities. Sara Bareilles has fewer responses per post than Hayley Williams did.
Hayley Williams did not have 30 posts on Facebook to be recorded because she has not
posted 30 times in the duration of her being a Facebook member. To resolve this, all of the posts
were recorded coming short by four posts.
The biggest limitation with this study was that the scales were mostly subjective. Some
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posts could have fallen between two numbers on the scale and ultimately a decision had to be
made to get some data.
Future Directions for Research
Furthering this study many new paths can be explored. One discovery made relates to the
kind of communication between fans and celebrity within the specific social media. Marwick
and boyd (2011) discuss the fan’s need and want for celebrity reciprocation. This study is
strongly seen in the present research on Facebook and on Twitter where reciprocation is not only
shown by answering a question in a post, or giving advice, but also just blatantly asked for. It
was found on Facebook that hundreds of comments were posted under each post by the celebrity;
however the celebrity never showed any reciprocation to these comments. Many of these
comments asked questions, requested an action or even shared personal information repeatedly.
A question could be posted about why fans feel the need to ask and post these questions
repeatedly if there is no promise or even sign that celebrities have responded to any of the posts
on Facebook. In relation, it was found that there are usually less than 50 replies to tweets to the
celebrity. These posts have been found that celebrities respond back, and retweet some of their
fans posts. Another question can be posted on why fans post to a general forum like Facebook
expecting responses yet do not reply to tweets which have a higher likelihood of being seen and
responded to. The study by Marwick and boyd (2011) can be furthered and stretched to find why
celebrities might not reciprocate to fans.
While recording data, a photo or link or webpage was also documented. A further study
may be to research what types of photos and their content may have on likes, favorites, etc.
Retweets of other tweets occurred from every celebrity. These retweets were either
promotions for their music or merchandise, or were foundations or something they believed in;
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either a 1 or a 3 on the disclosure scale. These retweets could not be recorded accurately with
favorites, retweets and comments when the celebrity was not the original source. Something to
look into with these retweets would be if celebrities have certain requirements for things they can
not directly tweet or post about or how much of an effect a retweet has upon fans. Another future
research item may be on how retweeting something about an organization versus personally
posting something about an organization differs, and how one may be more beneficial than the
other.
A future study to research would be with different kind of celebrities; film actors, tv actors,
and special interest people. These groups along with different fan pages that are run by the
manager or agent might also be of some interest of potential study.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the use of the Internet and more specifically, use of social media for
personal disclosure of information from a celebrity to their fan base can be broken up into the
form of social media. Facebook proved to have a very large amount of fans that posted regularly
no matter the information disclosed, whereas Twitter supported conversations and more
interaction between celebrity and fan. From this study we can further research into reasoning
why behaviors differ between the two. Self-disclosure between celebrity and fan forms a
relationship that strengthens from both ends; celebrity recognizes the fan base and the incoming
responses and therefore continues to post to the fans, and fans see reciprocation, respond more
and strengthen the passion they have for the celebrity. In all, through social media and the
celebrity-fan relationship and the instantaneous nature of the Internet, an ongoing perpetual link
can be formed and strengthened between complete strangers.
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References
Altman, I., & Taylor, D. A. (1973). Social penetration: the development of interpersonal
relationships. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Berger, C., & Calabrese, R. (1975). Some Explorations in Initial Interaction and Beyond:
Toward a Developmental Theory of Interpersonal Communication. Human
Communication Research, 1(2), 99-112.
Cozby, P. (1973). Self-disclosure: A literature review. Psychological Bulletin, 79, 73-91.
Eley, B., & Tilley, S. (2009). Social Media. Online marketing inside out (p. 79). Collingwood,
Vic.: SitePoint.
Jiang, L., Bazarova, N., & Hancock, J. (2010). The Disclosure-Intimacy Link in ComputerMediated Communication: An Attributional Extension of the Hyperpersonal Model.
Human Communication Research, 37, 58-77.
Marwick, A., & boyd, d. (2011). I tweet honestly, I tweet passionately: Twitter users, context
collapse, and the imagined audience. New Media & Society, 13(1), 114-133. Retrieved
September 28, 2012, from the EBSCOhost database.
Marwick, A., & boyd, d. (2011). To See and Be Seen: Celebrity Practice on Twitter. The
International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, 17(2), 139-158.
Palmieri, C., Prestano, K., Gandley, R., Overton, E., & Zhang, Q. (2012). The Facebook
Phenomenon: Online Self-Disclosure and Uncertainty Reduction. China Media
Research, 8(1), 48-53. Retrieved September 27, 2012, from the EBSCOhost database.
Walther, J. (1996). Computer-Mediated Communication: Impersonal, Interpersonal, and
Hyperpersonal Interaction. Communication Research, 23(1), 3-43.
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Appendices
Appendix A: Celebrity Disclosure Scale
1
2
Self/Music Promotion
3
Daily Life
Personal Information
Appendix B: Reciprocation Disclosure Scale
1
2
Negative/Spam Comment
3
General Reply or Comment
Personal Information
Appendix C: Facebook Data Recording Sheet
Date Disclosure Picture/Link/Video
Likes
Shares
Comments
Reciprocation in Comments
Mode
Average
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Appendix D: Twitter Data Recording Sheet
Date Disclosure RT/Quote Pic/Link/Vid
Retweets Favorites CommentsReciprocation in Comments
Mode
Average
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