America in Transition:
1945-1965
Exhibit Credits
► Special
thanks to students of my MCS 233
class (Spring 2004) for information on the
Mansfield Schools of Texas and the public
schools of Delaware:
Kiley Hyland, Tara Rosenow, Kate Howard,
Nicholle Breikjern, Theresa Nygaard, Teresa
Sachow, Tyson Zitzow, Melissa Doll.
Something for the Victors
In order to give the
American military
veterans a financial
boost, Congress
passed the “GI Bill of
Rights,” a program
that would provide
grants and low-cost
loans to veterans for
education, housing,
and other needs. The
bill was made law in
June 1944.
The Great Years
Gross Domestic Product (the measure of individual economic
health) rose consistently for over 25 years. And prices remained
relatively low, providing unprecedented buying power.
Victory and Prosperity
Despite fears that the postwar era may begin with
financial problems, the demand for new housing, new
appliances, and all the other needs for new families
fueled an economic boom. The standard of living grew
more than 35% by 1960
The Television Revolution
Television, perfected
during the war, would
change everything from
the way Americans acted
at home to the way they
received information.
There just over 1 million
televisions in American
homes, and 46 million in
1960. The television
became the centerpiece
of the American living
room.
The Nuclear Family
Television began to affect the way
Americans saw family life.
Because so much of early
television focused on the “singlefamily unit” of mother, father, and
children, the view grew that this
type of family (white, middleclass, living in the suburbs, with
mom at home and dad earning
money with a “professional” job)
was the way “it ought to be.”
Right – the Donna Reed Show,
1958-1966
Baby Boomers
Taken on the front steps of a
married-student housing
apartment at Moorhead State
Teachers College, in about
1949-1950. Because so many
ex-servicemen, with young
wives and children, lived in
this housing from 1947-1952,
the place became known as
“fertile acres.”
Creating Highways
The Interstate Highway plan of 1954 provided Federal funding
for building the 4-lane highways. The project was approved by
Congress as a measure for “national defense.”
Air Travel
The growth of the airplane industry in World War II set the
stage for a vast increase in consumer air travel. The world was
“getting smaller.”
Most Were Satisfied
Most were quite satisfied with the situation in the
1950s, when
•American was not at war
•Work was available to almost everyone
•Incomes were higher than ever
•There was more leisure time than ever before
But there was a major shift coming – as the
largest generation ever began to come of age.
The Cold War
The Korean war had briefly raised the possibility of an all-out
Atomic war with Russia, but after the Korean cease fire in
1953, the two “super powers” engaged in a “cold war” rivalry.
Containment
The basic American strategy
followed during much of the Cold
War was “containment.” Devised
in part by George Kennan, an
expert on Russian culture in the
State Department, containment
involved the American
government using military
alliances, foreign aid, a limited
military action to “contain” the
expansion of communism and
Soviet influence.
Spies at Home
One aspect of the Cold war was the fear of Soviet agents in America.
Alger Hiss, a young advisor of the State Department was accused of
giving diplomatic secrets to the Russians. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
(above) were executed for Treason in 1953, after a court found them
guilty of giving Atomic research to a Russian agent.
McCarthyism
Republican Senator Joseph R.
McCarthy (right), of Wisconsin,
raised the anti-communist fever
to such a high-pitched campaign
of demagoguery that “redbaiting” has been known since as
“McCarthyism.” Beginning in
February 1950 McCarthy made a
series of unsubstantiated
charges, using guilt by
association, lies, and
documentation taken out of
context to accuse people at all
For all his effort, McCarthy never
levels of government of
found proof that any individual he
communism.
investigated was a Russian agent.
When he tried to attack the US Army
for “harboring communists,” he was
ruined.
Who Was Unhappy
►Minorities
who wanted greater equality
►Women who chafed at the restrictions
imposed on their opportunities.
►Intellectuals who disliked restrictions
on their creativity, or who disliked
society as too conformist (writers,
musicians, artists, etc.).
Brown Vs. Board of Education
The Supreme Court ruled
in 1954 that “separate
but equal” schools was
not constitutional. But
in would take several
more years (and court
cases, argued by civil
rights lawyer Thurgood
Marshall (right) and
others) before most
American schools were
desegregated.
Why Brown Was Decided
1890s Supreme Court Decision, that “separate but
equal” facilities were acceptable was never carried out –
“separate” was never made “equal.”
•Funding for black schools generally 40-50% less than
white schools of same size
•Black teachers paid about two-thirds of white teachers’
salaries.
•Texts in black schools generally 10-15 years out of
date.
•The Court ordered desegregation “will all deliberate
speed.” That mean more lawsuits and more
controversy.
The Story of Mansfield, Texas,
1955
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Terrant county Texas
Segregated school system,
providing no bus
transportation for black
students to their segregated
school.
T.M. Moody- the active
president of region’s NAACP
helped to pay for lawsuits.
I.M. Terrel High School for
African American students.
Landmark integration case in
the state of Texas
Events in the Desegregation
Process
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I.M. Terrel School was a black-only high
school – under funded and poorly staffed.
Black community frequently requested
improvements – no result.
1955 --Three I.M. Terrel School students
attempted in Mansfield public school, and
turned away.
Lawyer for students files suit on Oct. 7,
the case would begin Nov. 7.
Ruled in favor of the defendant.
After school district loses appeals to
higher courts, the school board
determined that the school would be
integrated the following school year,
1956-1957.
Community Reaction to
Desegregation
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The announcement for integration was not
released until August 27, two weeks be fore
school began.
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White organizations expressed fear that
desegregation would lead to a “mixed race” in
the future.
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Parents of black students from the I.M. Terrel
school worried that their children would have
difficulty being accepted into the new school
system, might be subject to violence.
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Additional police added to school area to prevent
violence.
Evans Vs. Buchanan
1956
Evans Vs. Buchanan
Background Information
• 1956 saw a series of lawsuit in
Delaware regarding segregated schools in
the state.
•All lawsuits were consolidated and heard
as Evans vs. Buchanan.
•Delaware had been a slave state in 1860
and indeed did not end slavery until 1864
(13th Amendment).
•One national publication termed
Delaware’s segregation as “worse than
the deep south.”
Court Actions
•No black children were being admitted into white
schools
•In 1955, 9 year-old Brenda Evans was 1st plaintiff
to file suit against the town of Clayton, DE.
•Evans’ attorney was Louis L. Redding, prominent
civil rights attorney.
•In 1956 Federal District Court found that Delaware
had done little to obey Brown decision and
eliminate “separate but equal” schools. The Court
ordered Delaware to come up with a desegregation
plan
Attempts to Delay
Implementation
•In response to Federal order, Delaware
state board of education developed a planone-grade-a-year basis (i.e. desegregate
kindergarten the first year, 1st grade the
second year, etc.)
•Black community returned to court,
arguing plan is an attempt to delay.
•Public opinion in white communities –
mixed schools were “unnatural” and
“dangerous.”
•Court actions continued into 1959 before
state made real efforts to comply.
Long and Difficult Process –
Two County Experiences
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1961- Public schools in Kent & Sussex counties were
partially desegregated.
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Desegregation occurred under a “freedom-of-choice” plan
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Plan allowed students of both races to attend any
school within geographical district.
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Attempts to intimidate black students to opt for old
schools did occur.
-Still considerable amount of racial mixing.
-Delaware’s Board of Education was not satisfied with plan.
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Delaware’s last all black school was closed in 1967.
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Various court cases continue until 1993 to eliminate
differences in funding, etc.
White
Black
8,209
1,689
Kent County
19 school buildings with black & white
5 school buildings with only white
326
----
7 school buildings with only black
Sussex County
Totals
8,535
---260
1,949
11 school buildings with black & white
3,871
213
9 school buildings with only white
2,440
----
24 school buildings with only black
---Totals
6,311
2,898
2,898
Source: Delaware Dept. of Public Instruction, Annual Report (1963-1964), 60.
Enrollments by Race, Kent & Sussex Counties,
1963-1964
Sparking a Civil Rights Movement
Although school desegregation progressed slowly, the
mere fact that it happened encouraged the NAACP and
other African-American groups to press for the end of
other forms of segregation – in public transportation,
stores, restaurants, etc.
Violent Reactions to Civil Rights
The desegregation movement created a violent backlash
in the South. In 1955, a 14 year old from Chicago, was
murdered in Mississippi for “fresh-talking” a white
women. Local courts refused to convict the murderers,
who openly bragged about “beating the boy to death.”
King and the SCLC
Many men and women played leading roles in the civil rights
movement of the 1950s. But as the decade continued, Martin
Luther King, a young minister and head of the Southern
Christian Leadership Conference, began to emerge as the most
prominent “face” of the movement. His speaking skill, coupled
with his belief in non-violent protest, made him acceptable to
many white supporters of the efforts to end desegregation.
Civil Rights Progress
The civil rights movement took another step forward in 1957,
when Congress passed the first Civil Rights Act since the 1800s.
The 1957 act created a Civil Rights Division in the Department of
Justice. But a section of the bill, allowing the Federal
government to file suit in Federal courts, but blocked in the US
Senate.
Television Racism
Although it had high
ratings (an used real
African-American
actors, unlike the radio
show), “Amos ‘n
Andy” was cancelled
after viewers protested
its portrayal of Black
life in America.
Kennedy’s Election
In 1960, John F. Kennedy (whose civil rights record was not
impressive, used connections to King and other black leaders to
win election. He would have only limited impact on civil rights,
largely because his main interest was the Cold War.
Kennedy Takes Office
Inaugural Address
• Focused on change
• Strong anti-Communist tone
• Did not specify his domestic policy goals because so much
division existed over domestic issues
Kennedy’s Advisors
• Gathered a group some called “the best and the brightest” as
his advisors
• Most of Kennedy’s advisors were young.
• Closest advisor was his brother, Robert (“Bobby”) Kennedy
• Cabinet members had less influence than White House
advisors.
Bay of Pigs Invasion
The Invasion
• Bay of Pigs
invasion failed.
• Information was
leaked early.
• Air strikes failed.
• Castro prepared
for a land attack.
• Invaders were
captured and
ransomed back
to United States.
• Strengthened
Castro’s ties to
the Soviet Union
The Cuban Missile Crises
Buildup
Crisis
Begins
The Cuban missile crisis in 1962 brought on near-nuclear
war. Although Kennedy was perceived as the victor in
this crisis, in reality he made a deal with the Soviet
Union.
Kennedy Foreign Policy and the
Cold War
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Kennedy also followed the Cold War policies of his
predecessors.
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He continued the nuclear arms buildup begun by
Eisenhower.
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He continued to follow Truman’s practice of
containment.
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He developed the strategy of flexible response.
 Strengthening conventional American forces so the nation
would have other options than nuclear weapons in times of
crisis
The Space Program
While seen as a triumph of American technology,
the “space race” was fueled by the quest for a more
accurate, powerful missile to use in defense.
Vietnam
Kennedy also committed larger numbers of US troops to
Vietnam. In mid-1963, he permitted the CIA to
“participate” in the overthrow of the South Vietnamese
government
March on Washington
Also in 1963, the NAACP, SCLC, Urban League, and other
organizations staged the great gathering in Washington, to
publicize the need for a stronger civil rights bill from Congress.
Kennedy wanted to prevent the “march,” for fear of violence. It
became the setting for the most important speech of King’s
career.
Assassination
How Kennedy may have resolved his Cold War
and civil rights challenges is unknown.
Murdered in Dallas in November 1963, his
policies became the problem of Lyndon Johnson.