Structure
Chapter 6
What is group Structure?
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Group structure: The complex set of
relations that organizes the group
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Norms
Roles
Intermember relations
Emergent (self-organizing) and/or
deliberately designed
What Are Norms?
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Consensual and often implicit standards that
describe what behaviors should and should not
be performed in a given context.
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Consensual rather than idiosyncratic
Implicit and explicit
Provides direction and motivation
Are often self-generating
What Are Norms?
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Prescriptive Norms – preferable, positively
santioned behaviours – normal course of action
(encouraged)
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Proscriptive Norms - prohibited, negatively
sanctioned behaviours (discouraged)
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Descriptive Norms – how people typically act, feel,
and think in a given situation

Injunctive Norms – how people should act, feel, and
think in a given situation
Feature
Description
Descriptive
describe how most members act, feel, and think
Consensual
shared among group members, rather than personal,
idiosyncratic beliefs
Injunctive
(or normative)
define which behaviors are "bad" or "wrong" and which are
"good" or "acceptable"
Prescriptive
set the standards for expected behaviors
Proscriptive
identify behaviors that should not be performed
Informal
describe the unwritten rules of conduct in the group
Implicit
often so taken for granted members follow them
automatically
Self-generating
emerge as members reach a consensus through reciprocal
influence
Stable
once they develop, resistant to change and passed from
current members to new members
Norms (cont’d)

Sherif’s studies of the development of norms
in groups
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Convergence in actions, thoughts, and
emotions occurs over time
Sherif's (1936) autokinetic effect studies
Judged distance a dot of light moved in a darkened room
Autokinetic effect:
the stationary dot of light will seem to move
It moved about
3.5 inches
What if people make their judgments with others, and state
estimates aloud?
Looks like 1 inch
I’d say 2 inches
7.5
inches
Conformity!
Initially, they differ; but over trials, they converge
Person A
Average distance
estimates
Convergence
Person B
Person C
Alone
Group
Session 1
Group
Session 2
Group
Session 3
Sherif verified that norms form spontaneously and indirectly
Consensual
shared among group members, rather than
personal, idiosyncratic beliefs
Implicit
often so taken for granted members follow
them automatically
Self-generating
emerge as members reach a consensus
through reciprocal influence
Stable
once they develop, resistant to change and
passed from current members to new
members
Sherif put in a confederate in some groups who made
exaggerated distance judgments others conformed
Average distance
estimates
Confederate
Person B
Person C
Alone
Group
Session 1
Group
Session 2
Group
Session 3
Even when the confederate was replaced, the
norm remained
Person B
Average distance
estimates
Person C
New
Person D
Group
Session 4
Group
Session 1
Group
Session 2
Group
Session 3
Person C
Average distance
estimates
Person D
Person F
Group
Session 4
Group
Session 1
The exaggerated norm lasted for
many “generations” of replacements
Group
Session 2
Group
Session 3
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Sherif’s Studies of the Development of
Norms in Groups
- Members often internalize these
consensual standards
- Result: norms are self-generating and
stable
Examples
• Eating disorders in groups (binging,
purging, excessive exercise)
• Alcohol use on college campuses
(Perkins and “social norm
interventions”)
What Are Roles?

Roles: The types of behaviors
expected of individuals who occupy
particular positions within the group
(e.g., roles in a play)
 Independent of individuals
 Flexible, to an extent
 Structure interaction, create
patterns of action
Role Differentiation

Role differentiation: The emergence and
patterning of role-related actions
 Task roles pertain to the work of the
group
 Relationship roles pertain to relations
among members.
 Roles tend to become specialized over
time
 Task and relationship role demands tend
to be incompatible with one another
Group Socialization

Moreland and Levine's group socialization theory
 Types of Members: prospective, new, full,
marginal, and former (ex-member)
 Phases: investigation, socialization,
maintenance, resocialization, and remembrance
 Processes: recruitment/reconnaissance,
accommodation/assimilation, role negotiation,
tradition/reminiscence

Transition Points: entry, acceptance,
divergence, exit
Roles, Stress, & Well-Being
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Role stress
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Role Ambiguity – unclear expectations about the
behaviours to be performed by an individual
Role Conflict (interrole conflict and intrarole conflict)
Role Fit – the degree of congruence between the
demands of a specific role and the attitudes, values,
and other characteristics of the individual who
occupies the role
What Are Status Networks?
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Status network: Stable pattern of
variations in authority and power
What Are Status Networks?
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Status differentiation
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Competition for status (pecking orders)
Perceptions of status
Expectation-states theory: diffuse and
specific status characteristics
What Are Status Networks?

Status generalization: when irrelevant
characteristics influence status allocation

Minorities, women, solos denied status

Online groups and the status
equalization effect
Generations Differences?
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Changing demographics
Better understand it’s impact in the
workplace
Increase personal competency in
communication and management
Promote teamwork
Four Generations At Work
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Traditionalists (born 1922-1943)
Baby Boomers (born 1943-1960)
Generation X
(born 1960-1980)
Millenials (born 1980-2000)
Values

Traditionalists:

Boomers:
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Hard work
Dedication &
sacrifice
Respect for rules
Duty before pleasure
Honor
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Optimism
Team orientation
Personal gratification
Involvement
Personal growth
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Values
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Xers:
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Diversity
Techno literacy
Fun and informality
Self-reliance
Pragmatism
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Millenials:
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Optimistic
Feel civic duty
Confident
Achievement oriented
Respect for diversity
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Generational Interaction: An Example
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Traditionalists and
Boomers
may have a tendency not
to
question or challenge
authority or the status quo.
This may cause confusion
and resentment among the
Xers and Millenials who
have been taught to speak
Generational Interaction: An Example
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Xers and Millenials who
have had different life
experiences and
communicate with
people
differently, may fail to
actively listen to
Boomers
and Traditionalists
thereby missing
Generational Feedback
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Traditionalists – “No news is good
news.”
Boomers – “Feedback once a year and
lots of documentation.”
Xers – “Sorry to interrupt but how am I
doing?”
Millenials – “Feedback whenever I
want it at the push of a button.”
Feedback Style and Impact
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Feedback styles that may appear informative
and helpful to one generation might seem
formal and “preachy” to another.
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Feedback an Xer thinks is immediate and
honest can seem hasty or even inappropriate
to other generations.
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Some older generations have been told that
there is
a time and place for feedback. Younger
generations
haven’t necessarily been taught this “rule.”
Generational Meaning of
Feedback
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Traditionalist seek no applause but appreciate a
subtle acknowledgement that they have made a
difference.
Boomers are often giving feedback to others but
seldom receiving, especially positive feedback.
Xers need positive feedback to let them know
they’re on the right track.
Millenials are use to praise and may mistake
silence for disapproval. They need to know what
they’re doing right and what they’re doing wrong.
What Are Attraction Networks?
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Attraction network (sociometric structure): Stable
patterns of liking-disliking, acceptance-rejection,
inclusion-exclusion
What Are Attraction Networks?
Sociometric Differentiation – development of
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stronger ties between some members of the group, while a
decrease in the quality of relationship between others of
the group
Types of group members: stars, rejected, neglected
Features: reciprocity, transitivity, homophily (clusters)
Heider's balance theory: likes and dislikes are balanced
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A
A
+
B
-
+
+
C
B
A
+
+
+
C
B
-
C
What Are Attraction Networks?

What factors predict sociometric standing?
 Having socially attractive qualities (e.g.,
cooperativeness or physical appeal)
 Person-group fit
What Are Communication Networks?
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Communication network: formal and
informal paths that define who speaks to
whom most frequently
What Are Communication Networks?
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Types: wheel, comcon, chain, circle
Centralized vs. uncentralized
What Are Communication Networks?

Network and location in the network influences
many processes
 Information saturation: centralized networks are
most efficient unless information overload
 Individuals who occupy more central positions
are more influential (and more satisfied) than
those located at the periphery.
 Hierarchical networks and information flow:
More information flows downward and
unrealistically positive information flows upward
360-Degree Assessment
Manager(s)
Peers/
Colleagues
Others
YOU
Customers
Direct Reports
Clients
Advantages of 360-Degree
Assessment
• Objective measure of someone’s performance
• Provides perspective from many different angles
• Increased awareness of work related behaviors
• Improves communication between self and raters
• Clarifies differences of opinions
• Identifies gaps in performance and recognizes
areas in which the ratee can improve