QUESTIONS AND ESSAY PLANS
1(a) Discuss issues of pseudoscience and scientific fraud. (10 marks)
Paragraph 1 Introduction
Explain why parapsychology is considered by many to be a pseudoscience and give examples of
pseudoscience and scientific fraud. Outline evidence such as Mousseau’s (2003, see A2 Level Psychology
page 651), which states that parapsychology uses the experimental method less than mainstream science
does. Counter the argument that parapsychology is not scientific with procedures used to investigate
parapsychology that are scientific, e.g. the Ganzfeld procedure for testing out extra-sensory perception is
strictly experimental and can easily be replicated given the correct equipment. The research into psychic
healing and psychic mediumship has used the double-blind design and other controls to test these
phenomena scientifically.
Paragraph 2
Describe what scientific fraud means and use the cases of Walter J. Levy (see A2 Level Psychology page
652) and Randi’s (1983, see A2 Level Psychology page 653) Project Alpha as evidence. Evaluate that these
are just case studies and so cannot be said to be representative of all research into parapsychology. The
findings about Levy’s deliberate fraud and the poor methodology employed in the Project Alpha research
may well not generalise to wider research into parapsychology. Certainly the fact that the participants could
so easily defraud the researchers in the Project Alpha research shows the lack of scientific rigour of the test
procedures.
(b) Outline and critically evaluate findings from Ganzfeld studies. (15 marks)
Paragraph 1 Introduction
Outline the Ganzfeld procedure and explain that it tests for ESP.
Paragraph 2
Discuss the controversies of the technique such as the issue of replication and the effect of the experimental
design, i.e. whether a forced-choice or a free-response design is used. Also discuss whether factors such as
prior experience, practice of a mental discipline like meditation, prior laboratory experience, and
feeling/perception preferences on a Myers–Briggs-type indicator are confounding variables that may
account for ESP, and so if research does not control these four factors then cause and effect cannot be
established. Also discuss the issue of the experimenter expectancy effect.
Paragraph 3
Assess how well the autoganzfeld testing system has addressed the weaknesses of the traditional method
and use Bem and Honorton’s (1994, see A2 Level Psychology page 656) research as evidence.
2(a) Discuss cognitive factors underlying paranormal beliefs. (10 marks)
Paragraph 1 Introduction
Outline the sheep–goat effect. Use Jones and Russell’s (1980, see A2 Level Psychology page 659) research
to illustrate how this cognitive factor can affect paranormal experience.
Paragraph 2
Use Wiseman, Smith, and Wiseman’s (1995, see A2 Level Psychology page 659) and Wiseman and Smith’s
(2002, see A2 Level Psychology page 660) research as evidence for cognitive factors. Evaluate that the key
issue of such research is that it involves the natural experimental research method, and explain how this
limits research conclusions to associations rather than causation.
(b) Discuss the functions of paranormal and related beliefs, including their cultural
significance. (15 marks)
Paragraph 1 Introduction
Outline the psychodynamic approach function of paranormal experience, i.e. that it is a coping mechanism
that allows traumatic material to be repressed into the unconscious. Include Lawrence et al.’s (1995, A2
Level Psychology page 665) research as evidence of a relationship between childhood trauma and
paranormal experience.
Paragraph 2
Explain how the psychodynamic theory has been expanded to include any childhood experience
characterised by a lack of control and use Watts, Watson, and Wilson’s (2007, A2 Level Psychology page
665) research as evidence for a negative correlation between belief in the paranormal and perceived
childhood control. Discuss the weaknesses of the research evidence as it has to rely on self-report biases
and the that the fact that paranormal experience is multi-factorial means that further research needs to be
conducted to fully understand all the functions of paranormal experience.
Paragraph 3
Introduce the fact that the functions of paranormal experience are culturally relative, and use research to
illustrate this such as Jahoda’s (1969, A2 Level Psychology page 667) research of a tribe in New Guinea
and their fear of a monster called marsalai. Also explain how sleep paralysis is interpreted as a paranormal
phenomenon across a number of cultures and so shows how human experience can be seen as something
paranormal in some cultures but not others. Thus, paranormal experience reflects cultural experiences,
including the religion and education of the different cultures.
3(a) Discuss biological factors underlying anomalous experience. (10 marks)
Paragraph 1 Introduction
Identify temporal lobe lability as a biological factor. Outline Persinger’s explanation (1983, A2 Level
Psychology page 662) of temporal lobe lability and use Blackmore’s (1994, A2 Level Psychology page 663)
test as evidence for. However, use Blackmore’s follow-up research, which links experience of alien
abduction to sleep paralysis, rather than temporal lobe lability.
Paragraph 2
Identify electrohypersensitivity as another factor and include Budden’s (1994, A2 Level Psychology page
663) research into how some people are more affected by electromagnetic output than others and Jawer’s
(2006, A2 Level Psychology page 664) evidence of “sensitives” having greater electrical sensitivity.
Evaluate the research—such evidence is made up of case studies and anecdotal evidence. Thus the
evidence is not scientific—explain why not. Discuss the fact that a lack of cause and effect is a further issue
and how this limits conclusions and consider the reductionism of just considering the role of biological
factors
(b) Discuss the psychology of deception, self-deception, superstition, and/or coincidence
in anomalous experience. (15 marks)
Paragraph 1 Introduction
Introduce the cases of scientific fraud as examples of deception and detail the many reasons deception may
be used, such as financial gain, status, and even just fun—use the Cottingley Fairies as an example of the
latter. A very unusual case of deception is reported by Randi (1982, A2 Level Psychology page 670).
Outline the case of psychic surgery as another example of deliberate deception.
Paragraph 2
Introduce the idea that self-deception is when we mislead ourselves to accept as true what is most likely
false. Use Irwin’s (2002, A2 Level Psychology page 671) research, which found a relationship between
New Age Philosophy (NAP) score, which looked at belief in parapsychology, reincarnation, astrology, and
self-deception but not in the way expected as belief in NAP was related to low levels of self-deception!
Consider the issue of such research including the fact that it is difficult to study cause and effect, and
sample bias.
Paragraph 3
Outline Skinner’s view of superstition and how this can arise through operant conditioning. Use his
research on pigeons as evidence (Skinner, 1948, A2 Level Psychology page 672). Discuss the strengths of
this research, such as the experimental support the theory has. However, consider limitations, such as the
fact that rewards are not always clear and extrapolation from animals is an issue. Also consider the key
weakness as the fact that behaviourism ignores cognition.
Paragraph 4
Outline Freud’s (1901, A2 Level Psychology page 673) view of superstitions—that they are a form of
projection, and discuss the limitations of the theory, such as the fact that it is unverifiable and unfalsifiable
and so lacks scientific validity. Discuss the fact that neither Skinner nor Freud’s theory features in
contemporary ideas about superstition, which examine faulty cognitive processing. Use Lindemann and
Arnio’s (2006, A2 Level Psychology page 674) research as evidence and explain the role of dual-coding
processes. Discuss the issues with the research, such as the fact that it is reductionist to just classify
participants into superstitious and sceptics. We cannot establish cause and effect. There are self-report
criticisms due to using questionnaires to test out processing.
4. Outline and evaluate research into psychic healing, out-of-body and/or near-death
experience, and psychic mediumship. (25 marks)
Paragraph 1 Introduction
Outline what psychic healing is and describe evidence for it such as Byrd’s (1998, A2 Level Psychology
page 678) research into prayer healing and Sicher et al.’s (1998, A2 Level Psychology page 679) research
into distant healing. Both studies support the fact that psychic healing works. However, this is challenged
by Abbott et al.’s (2001, A2 Level Psychology page 679) research, which found that spiritual healing was
no more effective than simulated healing.
Paragraph 2
Discuss the strength of the research on psychic healing, which is the double-blind design. This counters
criticism that positive results are just a placebo effect—explain this. However, the fact that simulated
healing had the same effect as spiritual healing suggests that the placebo effect does explain the pain
reductions found by Abbott et al. (2001). Discuss the issue of confounding variables and contradictory
findings, both of which question the validity of research into psychic healing and so leaves us unsure of its
true effect.
Paragraph 3
Explain what an out-of-body experience (OoBE) is and that research has focused on common
characteristics across OoBEs. Describe evidence for OoBEs such as Alvarado’s (2000, A2 Level
Psychology page 680) and Irwin and Watt’s (2007, A2 Level Psychology page 680) research. Discuss the
weakness of such research, including why OoBEs cannot be tested for their validity as evidence is limited
to self-report.
Paragraph 4
Explain how a NDE differs from an OoBE and outline what one typically involves using Roe’s (2001, A2
Level Psychology page 681) five stages. Describe van Lommel et al.’s (2001, A2 Level Psychology page
681) research into the survivors of cardiac arrest and Greyson’s (2003, A2 Level Psychology page 682)
research, which compared experients of NDEs with a control group who had suffered a similar cardiac
arrest but had not had a NDE. Discuss the strength of van Lommel et al’s study, which is that it is
prospective not retrospective. Then consider weaknesses of research, such as the use of self-report, the
issue of sample drop-off, and the fact that data is correlational.
Paragraph 5
Explain what psychic mediumship is and the two hypotheses, the survival hypothesis and the Sceptical
Hypothesis. Outline Robertson and Roy’s (2001; 2004, see A2 Level Psychology page 683) research, which
rejected the Sceptical Hypothesis. Then summarise their follow-up study, which also rejected the Sceptical
Hypothesis and so their research again favoured psychic mediumship.
Paragraph 6
Evaluate the strengths of Robertson and Roy’s research: the research was well-controlled as they ensured
that the mediums did not know the recipients and that body language and participants’ responses could not
act as cues. However, their research is contradicted by O’Keeffe and Wiseman’s (2005, A2 Level
Psychology page 683) study. Explain why their findings led them to accept the Sceptical Hypothesis.
Discuss the issue of a lack of standardisation between the different studies and how participant effects may
explain Robertson and Roy’s findings.