Language &
Nationalism
in Europe,
chapter 1
Nationalism,
Language, Europe
Some mysteries of nationalism
• Power to arouse passionate loyalties,
justifying extreme violence
• Motives can be hard to understand, due to
lack of clear:
– Genetic motivation (as for family or tribe)
– Spiritual motivation (as for religion)
• So what ARE the motives?
Nations are
“imagined communities”
Q: What need DO they fulfill?
Nations are
“imagined communities”
Q: What need DO they
fulfill?
A: They provide:
– A sense of identity
– Economic
organization (though
this may no longer be
true, due to EU)
– Sense of greater
community (to replace
local/religious units)
Nationhood is a recent construal
• “Nation” does NOT describe an objective
reality
• The concept of “Nation” is a recent
phenomenon, a product of the social and
economic modernization that took place in
Europe from the mid 18th century onwards
A Nation is
a population that shares…
• WHAT?
A Nation is
a population that shares…
• A name
• A territory
• Myths and memories
• A culture
• An economy
• Rights and duties
Q: What do you need to hold all of these
together?
A Nation is
a population that shares…
• A name, a territory, myths and memories,
a culture, an economy, rights and duties
Q: What do you need to hold all of these
together?
A: Communication. A shared language or
languages.
Nation vs. Nation-state
Q: What’s the difference?
Nation vs. Nation-state
Q: What’s the difference?
A: A nation-state is a country that belongs to
a nation. A nation-state is a nation that has
political autonomy. A nation may have only
aspirations for independence.
An example of a nation that was not a
nation-state: Poland was merely an idea
for 123 years, until Poland was reestablished after WWI.
Poland 1795-1914
Nation vs. Nation-state, cont’d.
Q: What situations challenge the “ideal” of
the nation-state?
Nation vs. Nation-state, cont’d.
Q: What situations challenge the “ideal” of
the nation-state?
A: Any situation where the boundaries of a
nation and a state are not the same.
We will look at three of these:
*states of many nations
*nations that do not accept their states
*nations that go beyond states (diasporas)
Let’s do the math…
• Q: How many
countries are there in
the world?
• A: About 200.
• Q: How many
languages are there
in the world?
• A: Between 5,000 and
6,000
Nation vs. Nation-state, cont’d.
Name some states -- past or present -- that
united or unite many nations:
Nation vs. Nation-state, cont’d.
Name some states -- past or present -- that
united or unite many nations:
*Roman Empire
*USSR
*Chinese Dynasties
*India
*Austro-Hungarian Empire
*Russian Empire
*Ottoman Empire
*Czechoslovakia
*Yugoslavia
Nation vs. Nation-state, cont’d.
Q: What are some examples of nations that
do not accept the identity of the states
they are in?
Nation vs. Nation-state, cont’d.
Q: What are some examples of nations that
do not accept the identity of the states
they are in?
A: *Scots
*Welsh
*many Arabs
*Basque
Nation vs. Nation-state, cont’d.
Q: Some nations have large diasporas. Can
you name some of them?
Nation vs. Nation-state, cont’d.
Q: Some nations have large diasporas. Can
you name some of them?
A: Hungary, Germany, Korea, Poland, Italian
Nation vs. Ethnic Group
Q: What is the difference between a nation
and an ethnic group?
Nation vs. Ethnic Group
Q: What is the difference between a nation and an
ethnic group?
A: A nation has a territory, but ethnic groups may
be scattered and mixed (esp. in urban settings).
An ethnic group is often smaller and more
culturally coherent and usually has a shared
language. The concept of ethnic group is older
than the concept of nation and is functionally
equivalent to “tribe”.
Nationalism and Territory
• The connection between a nation and its
territory is particularly significant. The
territory is an important ingredient in
national identity and nationalism. However,
nationalism can inspire tensions when two
or more nations have conflicting
aspirations. Often these result from
historical memories of territory that
overlaps.
Ethnic group vs. Religious
group
Q: What is the difference between an ethnic
group and a religious group?
Ethnic group vs. Religious
group
Q: What is the difference between an ethnic
group and a religious group?
A: Religious groups tend to be bigger and
may not share a language. There are,
however, confusions between these two.
For example, is “Jewish” ethnic or
religious?
Ethnic group and Language
• Language often helps to define the
coherence of an ethnic group
• Language is also the vehicle for culture,
which is particularly significant for an
ethnic group
Language or Dialect?
• Q: How can you tell whether two groups of
people are speaking different languages or
dialects?
Language or Dialect?
• Q: How can you tell
whether two groups of
people are speaking
different languages or
dialects?
• A: Ask them!
Language is not a
discrete entity. We
have no operational
definitions.
Why are there
different languages and dialects?
Q: What causes
linguistic
differentiation?
Why are there
different languages and dialects?
Q: What causes linguistic
differentiation?
A: Barriers:
• Geographic barriers - mountains, bodies of
water
• Political barriers -administrative,
economic, and judicial
boundaries
• Social barriers -class, rank,
employment
Language vs. Dialect
Q: What is the
difference between
having two different
languages and having
two different dialects?
Language vs. Dialect
Q: What is the difference
between two different
languages and two
different dialects?
A common answer is:
• If the two varieties are
mutually
incomprehensible, you
have two different
languages.
• If the two varieties are
mutually comprehensible,
you have two different
dialects.
Language vs. Dialect
BUT I DON’T AGREE!
Q: What is the difference
between two different
languages and two
different dialects?
A common answer is:
• If the two varieties are
mutually
incomprehensible, you
have two different
languages.
• If the two varieties are
mutually comprehensible,
you have two different
dialects.
Language vs. Dialect
• Mutual comprehensibility serves to
distinguish language vs. dialect for some
situations, such as: Hungarian, Romanian,
Basque.
• It doesn’t work for many situations:
– German (incomprehensible dialects)
– Norwegian,Swedish,Danish (comprehensible)
– Slavic (both situations)
– Chinese
Language vs. Dialect
Q: What ultimately defines whether two
varieties are languages or dialects?
Language vs. Dialect
Q: What ultimately defines whether two
varieties are languages or dialects?
A: Imagination.
National Identity
Q: What ultimately produces a name and
identity for a nation?
National Identity
Q: What ultimately produces a name and
identity for a nation?
A: Imagination.
Language and Nationalism
• A single shared language is not absolutely
necessary for a nation, but it is useful, and
is often a goal of nationalist ideology.
• The mutual dependence of language and
nationalism motivate two ideals:
– A linguistically homogeneous nation
– A clearly distinct national language
• NB: This is a modern, European view!
Language and Nationalism
In reality, the relationship between language
and nationalism is very complex, and
Europe is only one of several models.
Linguistic homogeneity -- this ideal can
motivate various repressive policies
Distinct national language -- this ideal can
motivate various responses, such as
standardization or even the revival of a
language (cf. Hebrew, Irish)
Language Standardization
• This is a modern phenomenon.
• Selection of a language variety (or of selected
features of various language varieties) and
promotion to the status of a literary language, for
use in public arenas.
• This is often a politically charged process, as we
will see.
Language Standardization
Has side effects that might seem counterintuitive:
The languages of the largest groups
(nations, nation-states, empires, and
especially nations/empires that undertake
colonization) are the most unified and
homogeneous.
The languages of smaller groups tend to
suffer more from dialectal fragmentation.