COMPLEX CLAUSES AND LINKERS
Complex clauses:
A complex clause gives us extra information about a sentence. It is introduced by a
linking word o phrase. These words and phrases are also knows as 'linkers'.
Complex causes can express a range of meanings depending on the linker that is
used.
Types of complex causes:




Contrast: although, though, despite, in spite, in spite of the fact, despite the
fact that.
Purpose: so(that), in order (not) to, so as (not) to, to , so.
Reason: because, as, since
Result: so...that , such...that
When a complex causes begins a sentence, we use a comma to separate the
two clauses.
Linkers of contrast:
We can use the following linkers to express contrast: although, though, despite,
despite the fact that, in spite of, in spite of the fact that. We use these linkers in the
following ways.

although/ though + clauses: Although and though have a same meaning,
but although is more common in formal English.
Ex. Although he was in a bad mood, he came to the party

despite the fact that/ in spite fact that + clauses.
Ex. Despite he was in a bad mood, he came to the party

despite/ in spite of + noun/ pronoun or gerund.
Ex. Despite being in a bad mood, he came to the party / Despite his bad
mood…
Linkers of purpose:
We can use the following linkers to talk about the purpose of an action: in
order(not) to, so as(not) to, so, to. We use the linkers in the following ways:

to/ in order(not) to/ so as(not) to + infinitive. The all have the same
meaning, but you can't use TO in negative.
Ex. He came in the room very quietly so as not to/in order not to wake me up.

so/ so that + clause. These have the same meaning. we often omit the
word THAT in formal or spoken English. We often use these linkers
with can/ cant'/could/ will/ will not/ wouldn't.
Ex. He came in the room very quietly so that he didn’t wake me up.
Linkers of reason:
We can use the following linkers to talk about the reason for action or event: as,
because, because of, since. We use these linkers in the following ways:

as/because/ since + clause
Ex. We left quickly because/as/since we were in a hurry

because of + noun/ noun phrase.
Ex. We left quickly because of the traffic
Linkers of result:
We can use the following linkers to talk about the result or effect of something:
so...that, such...that. We use these linkers in the following ways.

so + adverb + that clause.
Ex. It was so cold that we had to leave.

so + adverb + that clause.
Ex. The weather was so bad that we had to leave.

such + adjective +noun + that clause.
Ex. It was such a good book that everybody wanted to read it.
EXERCISES
1. COMBINE EACH OF THE FOLLOWING PAIRS OF SENTENCES USING “TO +
INFINITIVE” (use “so as” and “in order to” where necessary)
a. I am buying paint. I want to paint my hall door.
b. He tied a knot in his handkerchief. He hoped that this would remind him to take
the train.
c. He left his rifle outside. He didn’t want to frighten his wife.
d. They got up very early. They wanted to get to the top of the hill before sunrise.
e. He rang the bell. He wanted to tell us that dinner was ready.
f. He was playing very softly. He didn’t want to disturb anyone.
g. He sent his children to their aunt’s house. He wanted to have some peace.
h. He didn’t tell her he was going up in the spacecraft. He didn’t want to alarm her.
2. JOIN THE FOLLOWING PAIRS OF SENTENCES USING THE EXPRESSION OF
PURPOSE INDICATED IN BRACKETS.
a. The column was built in 1902. It was meant to commemorate Boadicea. (to)
b. Modern airplanes are specially designed. They help people to travel in comfort.
(so that)
c. Cromwell founded a modern army. He wanted to defeat the Royalists.
d. John Evelyn wrote his Diary in 1666. The aim was that future generations should
know about the Great Fire. (so that)
e. I’ll open the door. Then you can see what’s inside. (for… to)
f. The British had a large navy. The purpose was to control their Empire. (so that)
g. They bought some champagne. They wanted to celebrate the end of the course.
(in order to)
h. He booked a ticket for the performance. He didn’t want to stand in a queue. (so
as)
i. He sent them to university. He wanted them to have a good education. (so that)
j. I’ve left her a note. I want her to know where to meet us. (so that)
3. COMPLETE THESE SENTENCES, INDICATING THE FUNCTIONS OF THE
OBJECTS NAMED.
a. He wanted to sell me a special knife…………………………………………..(cut carpets)
b. I tried to show the little girl that walls are not …………………………………………..
(draw on)
c. Can I help you? – yes, I want one of those things …………………………………………..
(staple paper).
d. In England houses are …………………………………………..(live in), but in Spain they’re
sometimes only ………………………………………….. (eat and sleep)
e. Every office should have a machine ………………………………………….. (make copies)
4.COMPLETE THE SENTENCES WITH ALTHOUGH OR IN SPITE OF
a. …………………… all my careful plans, a lot of things went wrong.
b. …………………… I had planned everything carefully, a lot of things went wrong.
c. I love music …………………… I can’t play any musical instrument.
d. …………………… being very tired, we carried on walking.
e. The heating was full on, …………………… this, the house was still cold.
f. Ken decided to give up his job …………………… I advised him not to.
2.REWRITE THESE SENTENCES WITHOUT CHANGING THE MEANING.
a. Although he’s got an English name, he is in fact German (despite).
b. In spite of her injured foot, she managed to get into the village. (although)
c. I decided to accept the job although, the salary was low (in spite of).
d. We went to visit her although she was very unpleasant (despite).
e. In spite of not having eaten for 24 hours, we weren’t hungry (even though).
5.USE THE WORDS IN BRACKETS TO MAKE A SENTENCE WITH THOUGH AT
THE END.
a. She’s very nice, (don’t like / husband). I
………………………………………………………………
b. It’s quite war, (a bit windy). It
…………………………………………………………………………...
c. We didn’t like the food, (ate). We
………………………………………………………………………
d. Edna sings very badly, (play / piano / well enough). She
……………………………………………………………………….
6.REWRITE THESE SENTENCES USING THE WORDS GIVEN IN BRACKETS.
a. It was raining so I didn’t water the plants (since)
b. There were no buses, so we had to take a taxi (because)
c. It was getting dark, we decided to stop until the following day (since)
d. I’ll have to buy a map, I don’t know the area (as)
e. The manager is out, his assistant signs the letters (since)
f. They gave it to me because it was valueless (because of)
g. She was nicknamed “the mermaid” because she could swim so well (because of)
h. The meat was cooked, I took it out of the oven (as)
i. I’ve given your old jacket away. It was too tight for you (because)
j. Paris is well known around the world, it is so beautiful (because of)
7.CHOOSE THE CORRECT ANSWERS.
a. As / As a result it was such a beautiful day, we decided to have a picnic.
b. It was his birthday because / so he decided to buy him a present.
c. As a result / Since all the seats on the train were taken, we had to stand.
d. The banks were closed and as a result / because we couldn’t get any money.
e. I didn’t find the book very interesting and so / as I didn’t finish it.
f. We couldn’t drive across the bridge as a result / because it was closed.
g. She had the best qualifications and she as / therefore got the job.
8.INSERT A CORRECT CONNECTOR IN THE BLANK SPACES.
a. ………………………. Manchester had not won a match that season, they were not
expected to win the following season either.
b. ………………………. we had plenty of time, we didn’t do half the things we had
planned to.
c. I’m not going to stop work now. I’ll keep going ………………………. I finish.
d. Peter is an excellent student, ………………………. John seldom opens a book.
e. ………………………. our train was late, we still made it to our destination on time.
f. ………………………. she is much older than I am, she looks younger.
g. ………………………. I was walking around the supermarket, I saw a friend.
h. I was able to walk slowly ……………………….the heavy burden.
i. My friend likes the town ………………………. I like the country.
j. We drove slowly ……………………….the icy roads.
k. Robert had ……………………….awful holiday that he wanted to come home early.
l. We hurried ……………………….be late for the appointment.
m. I’ll take my credit card with me ………………………. I decide to buy something
when I’m out.
n. These tests are given in the book ……………………….you can check your progress.
o. We went to a restaurant ……………………….celebrate my birthday.
p. ……………………….having a well-paid job, she never has any money.
q. We had a rainy winter, ………………………., the rice harvest was excellent.
r. I’m furious with him ……………………….he didn’t come to my party.
s. ……………………….he asked me, I told him the whole story.
t. ……………………….people complained that in the end they took the program off.
u. There was ……………………….dust that we couldn’t see what was happening.
v. ……………………….we had no money for a bus, we had to walk home.
w. They made him redundant……………………….his age.
x. He was tired……………………….he went to bed early.
y. He had changed a lot, ………………………. , I didn’t recognize him.
9. REWRITE THESE SENTENCES USING THE WORDS GIVEN IN BRACKETS.
a. Although the rain was falling heavily, they continued with the football match. (in
spite of)
b. Grandma cannot hear what you say because she is very deaf. (so)
c. The girl was so tall that I found it difficult to dance with her. (such)
d. Many rivers have burst their banks because there has been a heavy rainfall.
(because of)
e. The driver instructor took Dan onto the main road: he wanted him to get
experience in high speed driving. (so that)
f. We couldn’t go to the concert because the tickets were too expensive. (since)
g. In spite of the difficulty of the questions, he answered them all. (although)
h. He forgets to turn on the light every time he leaves. (whenever)
i. I’ve told you this story because I don’t want you to forget the old days. (so that)
j. He is a very energetic man. He never looks tired. (such)
k. As there were a lot of people, they had to open all the doors. (so many)
l. Although we had revised everything a hundred times, everything went wrong.
(despite)
m. He left home early. He was afraid of missing the plane. (so as)
n. Some people enjoy city life. Others prefer the quiet of the country. (whereas)
o. Everybody stayed near the fire. The day was very cold. (because of)