Argumentative Fallacies
What is an Argumentative Fallacy?
A fallacy is a mistake in reasoning. It is a type of argument that may appear to be correct, but upon
examination, proves not to be.
Argumentative fallacies occur in our writing when we feel uncertain about the topic we are discussing, if
we have not put enough time into thinking through an argument, if we have not completed our research
properly or done enough of it, if we are not interested in a topic, or if we feel tired and simply don’t put
in the proper effort. We must know what a fallacy is, however, and be able to recognize them so that we
do not use them. Fallacies, of course, weaken our papers and your professors will certainly pick up on
them.
We can avoid fallacies by choosing topics that we are interested in, doing good research, and critically
reading our work back to check for errors in reasoning.
Some Common Fallacies
Ad Hominem – Argument to the Man
This involves attacking a person instead of attacking the argument the person is making.
Example:
Paul comments positively about universal healthcare.
Bob responds, "Don't take Paul's assertions seriously. He picks his nose."
Ambiguity
Ambiguity involves doubtfulness or uncertainty. An argument with ambiguity may be correct, but it may
also be incorrect depending on how the terms are defined. In the example below, the term
“housefly/house fly” is not defined and, therefore, is subject to ambiguity. The terms are unclear.
Example:
Peter said he saw a housefly. Therefore, Peter thinks houses can fly.
Appeal to Authority
You must be cautious when relying on authority—or an “expert”—to make a claim. No authority is
perfect and, oftentimes, authorities contradict each other. The example below is fallacious because
Einstein was an expert in science, not theology.
Example:
Albert Einstein stated that, "God does not play dice."
Therefore, luck is in contradiction to God's sovereign plan.
Cause and Effect
A cause and effect fallacy involves stating that something is true because another condition has been
met. This is also known as questionable cause. Although sometimes cause and effect relationships are
true, we cannot suggest for certain that they are always true.
Example:
Winter causes illness.
Equivocation
This fallacy occurs when a word is used in two different contexts and is assumed to have the same
meaning in both contexts when, in fact, the definitions of the words needs to be defined.
Example:
All bushes are green and leafy. Therefore, George W. Bush is green and leafy.
False Dilemma
In a false dilemma, only two options are presented and neither of them may be true.
Example:
Either you accept Naturalism, or you are superstitious.
Guilt by Association
This fallacy attempts to discredit an idea or belief by linking it to an undesirable person or group.
Through this association, most people will discredit or be wary of the idea because it has been
associated with negative people.
Example:
“I can’t believe you are a Christian! Hitler was a Christian!”
Hasty Generalization
It is a mistake to apply an observation of a small group to a large group. These are often known as
stereotypes.
Example:
I met an atheist who had some very irrational arguments. Therefore, all atheists are irrational.
Appeal to Ignorance
This is when someone cites a lack of evidence for or against something. This is fallacious because the
person making the argument certainly could not know everything.
Example:
There is no evidence that God exists. Therefore, God does not exist.
Appeal to Novelty
This assumes that because a concept or object is new, it is inherently better than. Newness does not
guarantee quality.
Example:
The design architecture in the 7000 series is much newer than in the 5000 series. This makes the 7000
far superior.
Appeal to Popularity
This occurs when the popularity or commonness of a thought, argument, or object is deemed to make it
superior.
Example:
The majority of people in the world are opposed to the war in Iraq. Therefore, the war in Iraq is unjust.
Quoting Out of Context
Quoting out of context is something that many people, especially university students, do. Context is key
and it is important not to change the meaning of a quotation.
Example:
A woman had a highly puritan-like standard -- so much so, that she didn't really enjoy much from life.
When asked why she had such a standard, she quoted Colossians 2:21: "Do not handle, do not taste, do
not touch!"
However, when we read the passage this occurs in, we see:
If you have died with Christ to the elementary principles of the world, why, as if you were living in the
world, do you submit yourself to decrees, such as, "Do not handle, do not taste, do not touch!" (which
all refer to things destined to perish with use)--in accordance with the commandments and teachings of
men? These are matters which have, to be sure, the appearance of wisdom in self-made religion and
self-abasement and severe treatment of the body, but are of no value against fleshly indulgence.
Colossians 2:20-23.
Irrelevant Conclusion
This is an irrelevant topic or idea that is brought into a discussion to divert attention away from the main
topic. Usually, its irrelevancy is subtle and so those that aren’t paying close attention may be fooled.
Example:
Person 1: We must support the war in Iraq, because we have to finish what we started.
Person 2: I would support the President with the War in Iraq, but I don't like his policy on the economy.
Slippery Slope
This involves asserting the result of some event without adequately explaining how the result follows
the event.
Example:
If they restrict pornography today, tomorrow they will take away all of your freedom of speech.
Strawman or Red Herring Fallacy
This type of fallacy attacks a misrepresentation of an opponent’s argument. This is a common fallacy
because, often, people misunderstand other positions.
Example:
Mom: The doctor says that these exercises will help you recover more quickly.
Son: Aw, Mom! Do I have to look like Arnold Schwarzenegger?