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EDUCATION. (THIS DOES NOT PROHIBIT ITS USE ON A SCHOOL’S INTRANET)
Critical Thinking
Argument Mapping
Weasel Words
Fallacies (See Separate Fallacies Presentation)
Dialogue Education
2009
Contents
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Page 3 - An example of straw man fallacy….mapped
Pages 4 - What is an argument?
Pages 6 to 10 - How to map and argument?
Page 11 - Weasel words
Page 12 - What is a weasel word?
Pages 14 to 15 - Examples of weasel words
Page 16 - Examples of weasel words in Business
Page 17 - Weasel word bingo
Page 18 - A video example of Weasel words in politics
Page 19 - Bibliography
A Rationale map demonstrating the Straw man fallacy
Argument Map
• An Argument map is a visual representation
of the structure of an argument in informal logic.
It includes the components of an argument such
as a main contention, premises, co-premises,
objections, rebuttals and lemmas. (a lemma [not
leema] is a preliminary or auxiliary proposition
demonstrated or accepted in the demonstration
of some other proposition)
Argument Maps
• Argument Maps are often used in the teaching of
reasoning and critical thinking, and can support
the analysis of pros and cons when deliberating
over wicked problems.
Argument Mapping
• An argument map is a diagram that captures the logical structure of
a simple or complex argument. In the simplest possible case, we
have a single premise supporting a single conclusion. Consider this
argument :
• Life is short, and so we should seize every moment. This can be
represented in an argument map as follows:
Argument Mapping
• Let us now look at another example:
• Paris is in France, and France is in Europe. So
obviously Paris is in Europe. Here is the
corresponding argument map:
Argument Mapping
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•
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Note that the two premises are connected together before linking to the conclusion. This merging of the
links indicate that the two premises are co-premises which work together in a single argument to support
the conclusion. In other words, they do not provide independent reasons for accepting the conclusion.
Without one of the premises, the other premise would fail to support the conclusion.
This should be contrasted with the following example where the premises are not co-premises. They
provide independent reasons for supporting the conclusion:
[1] Smoking is unhealthy, since [2] it can cause cancer. Furthermore, [3] it also increases the chance of
heart attacks and strokes.
Instead of writing the premises and the conclusion in full in the argument map, we can label them and
write down their numbers instead:
Argument Mapping
• This diagram tells us that [2] and [3] are independent reasons supporting
[1]. In other words, without [2], [3] would still support [1], and without [3],
[2] would still support [1]. (Although the argument is stronger with both
premises.)
• Finally, it is also possible to have a single reason giving rise to multiple
conclusions :
• [1] Gold is a metal. [2] So it conducts electricity. [3] It also conducts heat.
Argument Mapping
More complicated examples
• Now that we know the basics of argument maps, we can combine the templates we learn above to
represent more complicated arguments, by following this procedure:
1.
Identify the most important or main conclusion(s) of the argument.
2.
Identify the premises used to support the conclusion(s). These are the premises of the main
argument.
3.
If additional arguments have been given to support any of these premises, identify the premises of
these additional arguments as well, and repeat this procedure.
4.
Label the premises and conclusions using numerals or letters.
5.
Write down the labels in a tree structure and draw arrows leading from sets of premises to the
conclusions they support.
Let us try this out on this argument:
• Po cannot come to the party because her scooter is broken. Dipsy also cannot come because he has to pick
up his new hat. I did not invite the other teletubbies, so no teletubby will come up to the party.
We now label and reformulate the premises
and the conclusions:
1. Po cannot come to the party.
2. Po's scooter is broken.
3. Dipsy cannot come to the party.
4. Dipsy has to pick up his new hat.
5. I did not invite the other teletubbies.
6. [Conclusion] No teletubby will come up
to the party.
We can then draw the argument map like
this:
Weasel words
Weasel Words
• Weasel words is an informal term for words that are
ambiguous and not supported by facts. They are typically used
to create an illusion of clear, direct communication.
• Weasel words are usually expressed with deliberate
imprecision with the intention to mislead the listeners or
readers into believing statements for which sources are not
readily available. Tactics that are used include:
• vague generalizations
• use of the passive voice
• non sequitur statements
• use of grammatical devices such as
qualifiers and the subjunctive mood
• use of euphemisms (e.g., replacing "firing staff"
with "streamlining the workforce")
Weasel Words
• Origin
• The expression weasel word derives from the egg-eating habits of
weasels. An egg that a weasel has sucked will look intact to the
casual observer, while actually being empty. Similarly, words or
claims that turn out to be empty upon analysis are known as "weasel
words". The expression first appeared in Stewart Chaplin's short
story Stained Glass Political Platform (published in 1900 in The
Century Magazine), in which they were referred to as "words that
suck the life out of the words next to them, just as a weasel sucks the
egg and leaves the shell."
• In the political sphere, this type of language is used to "spin" or alter
the public's perception of an issue. In 1916, Theodore Roosevelt
argued that
"one of our defects as a nation is a tendency to use ...'weasel words';
when one 'weasel word' is used ... after another there is nothing
left."
Weasel word examples
• "A growing body of evidence..." (Where is the raw
data for your review?)
• "Our product is so good, it was even given away in celebrity gift
bags." (True, perhaps, but not relevant.)
• "See why more of our trucks are sold in southern California than in
any other part of the country." (Southern California is a big vehicle
market.)
• "Nobody else's product is better than ours." (They're all about the
same.)
• "Becoming involved with this problem would be beneficial to us."
(In what way would it be beneficial?)
• "People say..." (Which people? How do they know?)
• "Critics claim..." (Which critics?)
• "I heard that..." (Who told you? Is the source reliable?)
• "There is evidence that..." (What evidence? Is the source reliable?)
Weasel word examples
• Experience shows that..." (Whose experience? What was
the experience? How does it demonstrate this?)
• "It has been mentioned that..." (Can these mentioners be
trusted?)
• "Popular wisdom has it that..." (Is popular wisdom a test
of truth?)
• "It is known that..." (By whom and what method is it
known?)
• "It turns out that..." (How does it turn out?)
• "History has shown that..." (Which events, date, facts have
shown that and who is interpreting these events, dates,
...?)
Weasel Words in Business
• Weasel words may be used to detract from an uncomfortable fact, such as the act of firing
staff. By replacing "firing staff" with "headcount reduction", one may soften meaning.
Jargon of this kind is used to describe things euphemistically.
• In certain kinds of advertisements, words are missing or withheld deliberately to influence
the buyer. Words such as more or better are misleading due to the absence of a
comparison:
• "...up to 50% off." (How many items were actually decreased in price by half? The
statement holds true even if the price of only one item is reduced by half, and the rest by
very little.)
• "Save up to $100 or more!" (What exactly is the significance of the $100? It is neither a
minimum nor a maximum, it just sits arbitrarily somewhere in an undefined range.)
• "... is now 20% cheaper!" (Is it really 20% cheaper than the last product?)
• "Four out of five people would agree..." (How many subjects were included in the study?)
• "... is among the (top, leading, best, few, worst, etc.)" (Top 100? Best in customer
service/quality/management?)
• "...for a fraction of the original price!" (This wording suggests a much lower price even
though the fraction could easily be 99/100)
• "More people are using..." (What does that mean in numbers?)
• "This product helps fight the signs of aging" ("helps" implies that it is the cure)
Weasel Word Bingo
• Play Weasel Word Bingo to see who can get the most "weasel words" into a
sentence that appears to make sense.
1. You must compose a paragraph of not less than three sentences.
2. You can use each word/phrase from the list not more than twice in the
paragraph.
3. +5 points for each word/phrase used.
4. -3 points for each non-list word used, except conjunctions do not count.
5. The whole thing must make partly coherent sense.
6. Judge's discretion allowed to award points for originality.
Past winner where he works:
• 'I have been out of the loop and want to touch base on whether we are in
that best practice ballpark that would empower us to proactively revisit the
bottom line of strategic fit, to think outside the box, be result-driven, have a
mindset of client focus so at the end of the day our game plan will create
synergy between our core competencies and our knowledge base, and will
fast track our leverage to create 24/7 value added win-win business
solutions that others will benchmark against and that we can later take offline.'
YOU TUBE clip showing politicians
using weasel words.
• Click on the
image to the
left. You will
need to be
connected to
the internet to
view this
presentation.
• Enlarge to full
screen
Bibliography
• Carl Wrighter discussed weasel words in his book I Can
Sell You Anything (1972).
• Wikipedia-Weasel Wordshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weasel_words
• Critical Thinking on the webhttp://philosophy.hku.hk/think/arg/complex.php
• Watson- Australian author Don Watson collected two
volumes (Death Sentence and Watson's Dictionary of
Weasel Words) documenting the increasing use of
weasel words in government and corporate language. He
maintains a website encouraging people to identify and
nominate examples of weasel words. It can be found at;
http://www.weaselwords.com.au/index3.htm