Kinetics
 The study of the mechanisms of a reaction and the
rates of reaction.
Factors that effect Rate of Reaction
(R of R)
 Collision Theory
 Anything that will increase the number of and
frequency of the collisions
 More effective collisions
Factors that Effect Rates of Reactions
(T,A,P,S,N,C)
 Temperature -(Average Kinetic Energy=motion)

Inc. Temperature = Increase R of R
 Amount

Increase Amount (concentration) = Increase R of R
 Pressure (g only) - Inc Pressure = increase R of R
 Surface Area – Inc. S.A. = Inc. R of R
 Nature of Reactants (Ionics > Covalents)

Due to their reactivity and the number of bonds needed to
break
 Catalyst – anything that is added that will increase
the R of R


If present will increase the R of R
How?
By providing an alternative pathway for the Reaction by
effecting 3 things
1.
Ea of the Forward catalyzed Reaction
2.
Ea of the Reverse Catlayzed Reaction
3.
PE of the Activated complex
TwoEndothermic
Kinds of Reactions
Exothermic
 Absorb Energy
 Release Energy
 Heat + AB  A +B
 A + B  AB + Heat
 Heat is a reactant
 Heat is a product = Stability
 Break Bonds
 Bond formation
+
-
H
H
(Most Effective Collisions)
Entropy
S
Entropy is defined as the degree of
randomness, disorder, chaos
(s) – (l) – (aq) – (g)
Gibbs Free energy
G
 A reaction will always proceed spontaneously if the
sign for Gibbs free energy is (-)  The two conditions that favor a are :
G
G
low energy - H Exothermic
high entropy + S
LeChatelier’s principle
 States that when a system that is at equilibrium is
placed under a stress, the systems equilibrium will shift
in order to relieve the stress
 Inc. (T) : will always favor endothermic reactions
 Inc (P) : will always favor the side of less mole
formation
A+B
C+D
Equilibrium
N2
3H2
NH3
HEAT
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
CH4
3H2
CO2
H2O
HEAT
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
Acids
&
Acids
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sour Taste
Reacts with certain metals
on table J to yield H2(g)
Great Electrolytes (Why?)
Excellent Conductors of
Electricity (Why?)
Cause Acid/Base Indicators to
change colors
Bases
Bases
Bitter
2. Slimy
1.
Great Electrolytes (Why?)
4. Excellent conductors of
Electricity (Why?)
5. Cause Acid/Base Indicators
to change colors
3.
Acid reacts with Base to yield Salt and Water
Called the “Neutralization Reaction”
The Neutralization Reaction
Acid + Base -------------> Salt + Water
HCl
+ NaOH
-------->
NaCl + H2O
What kind of Reaction do you See?
Double Replacement
The Hydrolysis of a Salt
The Reverse Reaction
Adding water to a salt!
Water + Salt --------> Acid + Base
H2O + NaCl -------------> HCl + NaOH
Called “The Parent Acid and Base”
Definitions of Acid and Base
Arrhenius
Acid
Any substance that yields (H+) as
the only positive ion in solution
HCl ------------> H+ + Cl-
HBr ------------> H+ + Br-
Base
Any Substance that yields (OH-) ion
as the only (-) ion in solution
(Recall: Goup I,II Metal with OH
and NH4OH)
NaOH --------> Na+ + OH-
H3O+ ----------> H+ + HOH
Ca(OH)2 -----> Ca+2 + 2OHNH4OH ----> NH4+ + OH-
H3PO4 ---------> H+ + H2PO4-
Reminder: Do not confuse Base with Alcohols!
(Hydrocarbon-OH)
H2PO4 - ------->
H+
HPO4-2
H+
-------->
+
HPO4-2
+ PO4
-3
CH3OH
CH3CH2OH
Amphoterism
Any Substance That can act as either acid or base
H3O+ ----------> H+ + HOH
OH-
HOH ------------> H+ +
H3PO4 ---------> H+ + H2PO4HPO4-2
H2PO4 - -------> H+ +
HPO4-2 --------> H+ + PO4 -3
Definitions of Acid and Base
Bronsted - Lowery
Acid
Proton (H+) Donor
Base
Proton (H+) Acceptor
H+
H+
H2O + H2O -------------> OH- + H3O+
Strong Acid (SA) ----------> H+ + Weak Base (WB)
Weak Acid (WA) ------------> H+ + Strong Base (SB)
Strong Acids and Strong Bases
 Strong Acids
 HCl
 HBr
 HI
 H2SO4
 HNO3
 StrongBases
 Group I M
 Ca, Sr, Ba with OH
pH Scale
 pH Scale
 Is a scale that is used to measure if a substance is an acid
or base
 Measures the Percent [H+] (The power of Hydrogen!)
pH Scale
 ****_____
 For every decrease in pH value, this represents a 10x
Increase in [H+]


5 <---------- 6 <------------ 7 <----------- 8
10 x
10 x
10 x
<------------------------------------------------------------1000 x
pH Calculations
Ksp (The ionization of H2O)
H2O <-----------> H+aq + OH- aq
Keq = [H+] [OH-]
Fact KH2O = 1 x 10 -14
1 x 10-14 = [H+] [OH-]
[H+] = 1 x 10-7
[OH-] = 1x 10-7
Calculate pH
pH = -log[H+]
pOH = -log[OH-]
pH = 7
pOH = 7
pH + pOH = 14
pH calculations
What are the pH values of the following?
.1 M HCl
.01 M HCl
.001M HCl
The Hydrolysis of a Salt!
 Remember (it is the reverse reaction of a
Neutralization reaction)
__________________
KCl + HOH -----> KOH + HCl
How can we determine the pH of the resulting
solution?
Titration
 Def. A technique that is used to determine the
strength of an unknown (acid or base) compared with
a known (acid or base).
 (coef
A) MAVA = MBVB (coef B)
We need an acid base indicator:
Phenolphthalein Acid
clear
Base
Pink
Titration Technique
 Steps.
Slowly add base to flask (watch for a color change to pale
pink) ***Do not go past the end point!
(coef A) MAVA = MBVB (coef B)
Titration
Titration
 (coef
A) MAVA = MBVB (coef B)
Titration and Calculations
 (coef
A) MAVA = MBVB (coef B)
End Point
Naming Acids
This is Review!
Binary (2 elements)
1. Always starts with “Hydro”
2. Name the Non-Metal (Chlorine)
3. Drop the ending, add ic acid
HCl Hydrochloric Acid
HBr Hydrobromic Acid
HI
Hydroiodic Acid
Tiernary (3 elements)
M(PI)
ate – ic
H2SO4 Sulfuric Acid
HNO3 Nitric Acid
M(PI)
ite - ous
HNO2 Sulfurous Acid
H2SO3 Nitrous Acid
Assigning oxidation numbers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Metals in group 1 have (+1) ox #, group 2 metals (+2)
Any single “Pure” element = 0
Hydrogen is always (+1) except in
metal hydride (-1)
LiH
Oxygen is always (-2)
exceptions: With flourine (flouide) +2 OF2
In Peroxides (-1) H2O2
The sum of all oxidation #’s must = 0
The sum of all Polyatomic ions must equal the charge of
that ion
Assigning oxidation numbers
 Binary Compounds
_____
HCl
_______
MgCl
1. Start with the Non Metal
2. Finish with the Metal
3. Sum up must = 0
Assigning oxidation numbers
 Ternary Compounds
_____
H2SO4
__________
Mg(NO3)2
1. Start with the Non Metal
(Oxygen)
2. Go to the Metal (H)
3. finish up in the middle
4. Sum up must = 0
Redox Reactions
(reactions where both Oxidation and Reduction take place)
1.
Oxidation
Reduction
Loss of Electrons
The gain of Electrons
Half Reactions
Mg0  Mg+2 + 2e(product)
Half Reaction
2e- + Mg+2  Mg0
(reactant)
Causes the Reduction of the other
elements
Causes the other species to be
Oxidized.
Acts as a REDUCING AGENT (R.A.)
Acts as the Oxidation Agent (O.A.)
Writing half reactions
determine the Ox / red
ra / oa
Steps (Now this is Doc’s Method! …..Capisco?)
1. Assign the Ox #’s
2. Record the changes
3. Record e- loss / e- gain
4. Determine the species that is oxidized (RA) and reduced (OA)
5. Balance if unequal
Ca + Cl2  CaCl2
***HHH___
All Redox Reactions must demonstrate conservation of both Mass and Charge
Electrochemical cell
Spontaneous cell (battery)
Voltaic cell, galvanic cell
Al
Cu
(****Chemical energy  electrical ****)
Remember: A RED CAT IS AN OX
and…….A RED CAT GETS FAT!!!!!!
TABLE J
Electrochemical cell
Spontaneous cell (battery)
Voltaic cell, galvanic cell
Electrochemical cell
Spontaneous cell (battery)
Voltaic cell
galvanic cell
Electrochemical cell
Spontaneous cell (battery)
Voltaic cell
galvanic cell
Electrochemical cell
Spontaneous cell (battery)
Voltaic cell, galvanic cell
Electrolytic cell
non-spontaneous cell (need a power source)
electroplating
electrolysis
(****electrical  chemical energy****)
Electrolytic cell
non-spontaneous cell (need a power source)
electroplating
electrolysis
(****electrical  chemical energy****)
Electrolytic cell
non-spontaneous cell (need a power source)
electroplating
electrolysis of water!!!
Electrolytic cell
non-spontaneous cell (need a power source)
electroplating
electrolysis of water!!!
Electrolytic cell
non-spontaneous cell (need a power source)
electrolysis of water!!!
2H2O  2H2 + O2
Hydrocarbon series
Alkanes
Alkenes
 All end in -ane
 All end in –ene
 General formula CnH2n+2
 General Formula CnH2n
 Identify by the C-C bone
(single)
 Saturated Hydrocarbons
 See C=C double bond
Hydrocarbon series
Alkynes
 All end with –yne
 General Formula of CnH2n-2
 Identify the triple bond
Hydrocarbon series
Cyclic Hydrocarbons
 Also called Aromatic
Hydrocarbons
 Also called Benzene series
 General formula is CnH2n-6
 Benzene C6H6
Hydrocarbon series
Cyclic Hydrocarbons
7
8
 Toluene C H
 Also called Methyl Benzene
Naming hydrocarbons
Steps
1. Identify the longest C-C continuous chain
Naming hydrocarbons
Steps
2. Look for any C=C or C=C Bonds and identify
by the lowest Carbon number location
Naming hydrocarbons
Naming hydrocarbons
Naming hydrocarbons
Step 3. Look for any Alkyl side chains:
(Alkyl groups are Alkanes less 1 Hydrogen)
Alkane
Alkyl
Dienes – contain 2 double bonds
Functional Group
- replaces a H atom of a hydrocarbon
- an atom (or group of atoms) that give an organic
compound specific chemical and physical properties
(the following slides discuss functional groups for reference, I will show
you how to correlate with your reference table O)
R = an atom or group of atoms
in a Hydrocarbon chain
Organic Halides
(Halocarbons)
X = a Halogen
(Group 17)
RNaming Rule
Indicate position X
of halogen on
longest hydrocarbon chain.
Alcohols
R-OH
Naming Rule
Indicate position of -OH group on carbon
chain.
Change “e” of alkane name to “ol.”
Ethers
R–O–R
Naming Rule
Name each R group and tack-on “ether.”
Aldehydes and Ketones
Naming Rules
Aldehydes: Change “e” of alkane name to “al”
Ketones: Indicate position of carbonyl
Change “e” of alkane to “one”
Organic Acids
Naming Rules
Change alkane “e” to “oic acid”
Organic Acids
Esters
O
R – C – O – R’
Naming Rules
1. Name R’ alcohol group
2. Change R alkane “e” to “oate”
***HHH______ Made from combining an Acid and an Alcohol
Esters
Amines
R’
R – N – R’’
Naming Rules
Label position of N.
Change “e” of alkane name to “amine.”
Amides
O
R’
R–C–N–H
Naming Rule
Change “e” of R alkane name to “amide”
Types of organic reactions
Adding a halogen to an unsaturated
hydrocarbon (alkene / alkyne)
Yields 1 product!
+ Br2
Types of organic reactions
Adding a halogen to a saturated hydrocarbon
(alkane)
Yields 2 products, one an acid!
+ Br2
Br
+
HBr
A reaction that always yields Ethanol and
CO2! Recall: anaerobic Respiration??
A burn reaction (always needs O2) and always
yields CO2 and H2O
Making of Soap, always yields an Alcohol
(Glycerol) and Soap!
Look for the 3 NaOH bases!!!!
Making Esters
Acid + Alcohol yields an Ester and Water
+
C
C
ethanol
+ H2 O
Making Esters
Acid + Alcohol yields an Ester and Water
Note the Esters
1. fragrances, sweet smells (bananas)
Naming revisit
1. Start with the Alcohol Side
2. Finish with the Acid side
The making of polymers
1. Natural – proteins, polysaccharides
2. Artificial – plastics, nylons, rayon
Addition Polymerization
Addition Polymerization
Fact!
1. A Transmutation is any alteration in the
nucleus
2. There are no stable isotopes above
element #83
1. Elements that are unstable will emit
energy in the form of Radiation
2. Called Radioisotopes
3. Stability is based on the P:N Ratio
Types of Particles that are Emitted
Particle
Type
Symbol
Mass
Charge
Penetratin
g
Power
Alpha
2He
α
4
2
Low
, β-
0
-1
Moderate
Positron
0 , β+
e
+1
0
+1
Moderate
Gamma
0
0γ
0
0
High
X-ray
Beta
-1e
0
4
The Effects of an Electric field
on Charged Particles
2 Types of transmutations
1. Natural
A type of Decay that occurs naturally therefore you
will see only 1 reacting nuclei that will undergo a
change
1. Alpha ( )Decay
2. Beta (
)Decay
3. Positron (
) emission
4. Gamma (
) decay
Artificial
A type of Decay that does not occur naturally,
therefore you will see 2 nuclei reacting
2 Types
1. Fusion
2. Fission
Natural Decay
and Writing Nuclear Equations
Alpha
Notice several things about it:
1) The atom on the left side is the one that splits into two
pieces.
2) One of the two atoms on the right is ALWAYS an alpha
particle.
3) The other atom on the right ALWAYS goes down by
two in the atomic number and four in the mass number.
More Examples of Alpha decay
More Examples of Alpha decay
Check it and compare the three points to the example. Keep in mind that
this equation shows the left-hand side splitting into the two pieces shown
on the right-hand side.
OK, write the alpha decay equations for these five nuclides.
Beta decay and writing
equations
Beta decay practice
Here's your first set of exercises. Write out the full beta decay equation.
Then click the link to see the answers.
Beta decay practice
Here's your first set of exercises. Write out the full beta decay equation.
Then click the link to see the answers.
Positron emission
37 ------>
K
19
0 +
e
+1
+
B,
37
Ar
18
+1
0
e
Pet scan (positron emission)
Gamma decay
No change in Mass or
Charge
Artificial Decay
The conversion of matter into energy
Fusion
 A reaction where 2 lite





nuclei (alike) are joined
together to make a heavier
nuclei.
Ex: Reactions on the Sun
Good: Yields A lot of
Energy
Bad: Requires a lot of
energy to run
Fuse 2 like nuclei (repel)
Need particle accelerators
to inc. KE
 Synchroton
 Cyclotron
Fission
 The splitting of heavy
nuclei (bombard with
high energy Neutrons
1
0N ) into a smaller nuclei
 Good: Yields a lot of
energy
 Bad: Produces a lot of
Radioactive waste
(disposal issues and half
life)
Fusion
+ 1H1 -----> 1H2 + +1e0 + energy
1 + H2 ------->
3
H
He
1
1
2
1H
1
Fission
1 +
n
0
235 ------> Ba142 +
U
92
56
91 + 3 n1 + ENERGY
Kr
36
0
1 +
n
0
235 ------> Xe143 +
U
92
54
90 + 3 n1 + ENERGY
Sr
38
0
Half-life
The time that it takes for a substance
(radioactive) to lose ½ its mass.
A. Determine the Age of rocks
(Carbon Dating)
During Half-Life Problems
Remember:
1. the longer the half-life, the SLOWER
the decay (Dangerous)
2. The shorter the half-life, the faster the
decay
(used in medicine)
Calculating the half-life
You will need to know 5 things
1. Total time
2.½ life time
3.# of half life
4.Initial Mass
5.Final Mass


If starting with
Initial Mass

If asked what
fraction remains?
Always start with (1)
# of
Half lifes
# of
Half lifes
128g
1
1
64g
1/2
2
32g
3
16g
X
4
8g
5
4g
6
2g
7
1g
÷
X
1/4
1/8
1/16
1
2
3
4
÷
Half-Life
Initial Mass
Total Time
½ life time
=
# of
½ lifes
2
#
2
Final Mass
1) The half-life of Zn-71 is 2.4 minutes. If one had
100.0 g at the beginning, how many grams would
be left after 7.2 minutes has elapsed? 12.5g
remaining
2) Os-182 has a half-life of 21.5 hours. How many
grams of a 10.0 gram sample would have decayed
after exactly three half-lives?
8.75g decayed, 1.25g remain
3) At time zero, there are 10.0 grams of W-187. If the
half-life is 23.9 hours, how much will be present
at the end of one day? Two days? Seven days?
1 day = 5.00g, 2 days = 2.50g, 7 days = .078g
Uses of radioisotopes
 Carbon Dating – C14 no longer taken in by a dead





organism
Ratio of U238/Pb206 to date rocks
I131 – used to study thyroid conditions
Co60 – emits large amounts of gamma radiation. Used
in treating cancers like Prostate
Co60 and Cs137 – emit gamma rays, used to kill Anthrax
Bacilli
Tc43 –used to treat cancerous tumors, absorbed by
cancer cells