Childhood, Gender and Culture
Lecturer:
Dr. Elisabeth Stern
emPower: Course 2012
Socialization and Enculturation
 Developed personality: individually specific
 Learned culture: group or category specific
(education, language, norms, values, rituals,
religion, time, space, political system)
 Basic human nature: universal (longing for
love and care, hunger, aggression, joy, grief,
survival instinct, death)
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Enculturation…
(1)
 … is the process by which a person learns the requirements
of the culture by which he or she is surrounded,
 and acquires values and behaviors that are appropriate or
necessary in that culture. (Merriam Webster Dictionary)
 As part of this process, the influences which limit, direct, or
shape the individual (whether deliberately or not) include
parents, other adults, and peers.
 If successful, enculturation results in competence in the
language, values and rituals of the culture.
 First use of the term Enculturation: 1948
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Enculturation is…
(2)
 … the process whereby an established culture teaches an
individual by repetition its accepted norms and values, so
that the individual can become an accepted member of the
society and find their suitable role.
 Most importantly, it establishes a context of boundaries and
correctness that dictates what is and what is not permissible
within that society's framework.
 It is the process of learning that takes the person and teaches
him or her the ways of life of their people or country. It is a
life-long process, affecting not only the child, but the adult
too.
 Enculturation is learned through communication in the form
of speech, words, and gestures.
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Enculturation….
(3)
 Enculturation can be conscious or unconscious.
 There are 3 ways a person learns a culture (gets
enculturated).
 Direct teaching of a culture, done mostly by the parents,
when a child is told to do something because it is right
and to not do something because it is bad/wrong.
 The second conscious way a person learns a culture is to
watch others around him/her and to emulate/imitate/copy
their behavior.
 Enculturation also happens unconsciously, through
events and behaviors that prevail in their culture.
 All three kinds of enculturation/socialization happen
simultaneously and all the time.
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Enculturation/Socialization
 The process of enculturation is related to
socialization.
 In some academic fields, socialization refers to the
deliberate shaping of the individual, in others, the
word may be used to cover both deliberate and
informal enculturation.
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Socialization defined simply
 The adoption of the behavioral pattern of the
surrounding culture.
 The socialization of the children to the norm of
their culture.
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Socialization is..
 …the process whereby the child learns to get
along with and to behave similarly to other people
in the group, largely through group pressure and
imitation of others. (McGraw Hill Dictionary)
 …. a continuing process whereby an individual
learns the norms, values, behaviors and social
skills appropriate to his/her social
position.(Business Dictionary)
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Enculturation and socialization runs deep
 Culture is taught to children from the day they
are born
 Is the child a boy or a girl? It matters in almost
every culture!
 What about social class? Oppressor or
oppressed? Does the family sleep in one room
or even in one bed – or in a mansion?
 To speak one‘s mind or to save the other‘s
face?
 Etc.
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Factors shaping Personality Development
 Genetic factors
 Species-specific maturing process
 Individual-genetic factors
 Socio-cultural factors
 Culture group
 Extended environment (nation, urban or rural environment,
social strata, occupational group of parents etc,
minority/majority)
 Psycho-dynamic factors
 Conscious personal choices (life objectives, motivations)
 Unconscious dynamic processes
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The Developmental Stages of
Identity Building by Erik Erikson
 Erik Erikson, 1902 – 1994, (Erik Homburger)
German-Danish-American developmental
psychologist and child psychoanalyst
 Best known for his book „Childhood and Society“,
1950, and for coining the phrase „identity crisis“.
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 Erikson believed that every human being goes
through a certain number of stages to reach his or
her full development, 8 stages from birth to death.
 According to Erikson, the environment in which a
child lives is crucial to providing growth, a source
of self awareness and identity.
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Psychosocial Stage 1
1st year of life: Trust versus Mistrust
 Beause an infant is utterly dependent, the development of
trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child‘s
caregivers.
 If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe
and secure in the world.
 Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or
rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children
they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a
belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
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Psychosocial Stage 2
1–3 y.: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
 Child needs to learn to explore the world. Bad if
the caregivers are too smothering or neglectful.
 Child learns to control his/her body functions which
gives him/her a sense of personal control and
leads to a sense of independence.
 Children who successfully complete this stage feel
secure and confident, while those who do not, are
left with feelings of inadequacy and self-doubt.
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Psychosocial Stage 3
Preschool, 3-6 y: Initiative versus Guilt
 Does the child have the ability to do things on
his/her own? (e.g. dressing, directing play.)
 If „guilty“ about making his/her own choices, the
child fails to acquire a sense of accomplishment
and initiative.
 Children who are successful at this stage feel
capable and able to lead others.
 Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a
sense of guilt and lack of initiative.
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Psychosocial Stage 4
6-11y: Industry versus Inferiority
 Children who are encouraged and commended by parents
and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in
their skills.
 Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be successful.
 Through social interactions, children begin to develop a
sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
 Children compare self-worth to others in a classroom
environment and they can recognize major disparities in
personal abilities relative to other children.
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Psychosocial Stage 5
12y – ca. 20y : Identity versus Role Confusion
 Questioning of Self: Who am I, How do I fit in? Where am I
going in life?
 During adolescence, children are exploring their
independence and developing a sense of self.
 Those who receive proper encouragement and
reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from
this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of
independence and control.
 Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will
remain insecure and confused about themselves and the
future. («Identity Crisis»)
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Stage 5, cont.
 Adolescence has been characterized by Erikson as the period in
the human life cycle during which the individual MUST establish a
sense of identity and avoid the dangers of role diffusion and
identity confusion.
 Identity achievement implies that the individual assesses
strengths and weaknesses and determines how he or she wants
to deal with them.
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Stage 5, cont.
 The adolescent must find an answer to the identity questions
«Where did I come from?» «Who am I?» «What do I want to
become?» «How do I fit in?»
 Identity is not readily given the individual by society nor does it
appear as a maturational phenomenon as do secondary sex
characteristics.
 The search for identity involves the establishment of a meaningful
self-concept in which past, present, and future are brought
together to form a unified whole.
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Stage 5, cont.
 The task is more difficult where the anchorage of family and
community tradition has been lost.
 In a period of rapid social change, the older generation is no
longer able to provide adequate role models for the younger
generation in the process of searching for a personal identity.
 Thus, the importance of the peer group in helping the individual to
answer the identity question «who am I?» becomes pivotal.
 The answer to this question depends on social feedback from
others who provide the adolescent with their perception and their
evaluation of him or her. Identity is based on psychosocial
reciprocity!
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Stage 5, cont.
 The adolescent often goes through a period of a great need for
peer group recognition and peer group involvement.
 Conforming to the expectations of peers helps adolescents find
out how certain roles fit them.
 The peer group, the clique, the gang, provide both a role model
and very personal social feedback.
 Eventually, adolescents must free themselves from this
dependency on peers, free themselves from the preoccupation
with the opinion of others in order to find themselves, that is, to
attain a mature identity.
 Identity must be acquired through sustained individual effort.
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Psychosocial Stage 6
 Early Adulthood – ca. 40 y.: Intimacy versus Isolation
 Who do I want to be with or date? Will I settle down?
 Erikson believes it is vital that people develop close,
committed relationships with other people.
 Remember that each step builds on skills learned in
previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of
personal identity is important to develop intimate
relationships.
 Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of
self tend to have less committed relationships and are more
likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and
depression.
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Psychosocial Stage 7
 Early 40 – mid 60: Generativity versus Stagnation
 We continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and
family.
 We measure our accomplishments or failures. Am I satisfied
or not?
 Those who are successful during this phase will feel that
they are contributing to the world and to the next generation
by being active in their home and community.
 Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world.
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Psychosocial Stage 8
 From mid 60 to old age: Integrity versus Despair
 Reflecting back on life.
 If life has been wasted = regrets, feeling of
bitterness and despair.
 Those who feel proud of their accomplishments
will feel a sense of integrity.
 Successfully completing this phase means looking
back with few regrets and a general feeling of
satisfaction.
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Developmental tasks: according to Robert I. Havighurst
Middle childhood (6 – 12 years)
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Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
Building wholesome attitudes towards oneself as a growing
organism
Learning to get along with age mates
Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role
Developing appropriate skills in reading, writing and
mathematics
Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
Developing conscience, morality and a scale of values
Achieving personal independence
Developing attitudes towards social groups and institutions
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Developmental tasks: according to Robert I. Havighurst
Adolescence (12 – 18 years)
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Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of
both sexes.
Achieving a masculine or feminine social role.
Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively.
Achieving emotional independence of parents and other
adults.
Preparing for professional life
Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide
to behaviour, developing an ideology
Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour.
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Puberty and adolescence
 Time between childhood and adulthood marked by the onset and
achievement of sexual maturity, often accompanied by profound
psychological crisis.
 Puberty starts with the appearance of secondary sexual
characteristics (e.g. growing of facial hair, deepening of the voice)
 Girls start puberty between 8 and 14 years of age, boys between 10
and 16 years.
 Rapid growth spurts - particularly of arms, legs, hands, and feet,
and evolving gender-specific body shapes (wider hips and the buildup of fat tissues in some body parts in girls, broad shoulders and
muscle development in boys) - transform child-specific body
proportions which contributes to wide-spread feelings of insecurity
among adolescents.
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Puberty….
 The mental and emotional maturing process triggered off by
adolescence takes much longer than the physical
development. Increased sexual urges, heightened selfawareness, and gradual integration into adult society require
major adjustments, giving rise to numerous conflicts.
 Disengagement and detachment from father and mother is
inevitable and necessary and often accompanied by protest
against adults in general. (= in Western view!)
DISCUSSION: True for you? To which degree is this true in your
culture?
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What does growing up mean for young
people? (1)
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Detaching oneself from primary contact persons, rebellion
Desire to be different, pleasure to play to the gallery
Desire to do everything better, arrogance
Extending of personal environment
Playing hazardous, seeking a „kick“
Looking for adventure, taking many risks
Experimenting with new roles and behaviours
Discussion: To which degree is this true or not true in your
culture?
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What does growing up mean for young
people? (2)
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Dreaming, idealising
Glorifying the present
Learning how to handle conflict
Losing control of one‘s feelings
High importance of subculture and peer group
Feeling of being useless, inferiority complex
Tendency to depression and withdrawal
Discussion
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Initiation
 [Latin, „initiation„, implying a beginning]
 Traditional ceremony practiced in most indigenous
societies.
 Initiation rites are performed at the onset of puberty of boys
(male initiation rites), some societies perform initiation rites
for girls at the time of their first menstrual period (female
initiation rites); initiation rites are an important part of
transition rites.
 Complex ceremonies symbolise death and rebirth and are
often accompanied by giving the initiated a new name.
 Initiation rites are a mode of entrance into an age group,
secret society or order.
Discussion: Initiation rites in your culture? For what? Meaning?
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Summary
 Although the specific quality of a person’s identity
differs from culture to culture, the accomplishment
of the developmental task acc. to Erikson has
common elements in all cultures.
 In order to acquire a strong and healthy egoidentity, the child must receive consistent and
meangingful recognition for his or her
achievements and accomplishments.
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Identity Building
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Identity Defined
 Identity means the reflective self-conception or
self-image that we each derive from our cultural,
ethnic, and gender socialization processes.
 It is acquired via our interaction with others .
 Cultural Identity is the identity of a group or culture
or of an individual as far as one is influenced by
one’s belonging to a group or culture.
 Culture is an important factor in shaping identity.
(Source: Ting-Toomey 1999)
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Personal Identity
 Personal identity includes any unique attributes
that people associate with their individual self in
comparison to those others.
 Individuals develop distinctive personal identities
due to
 their unique life histories, experiences, and
personal traits
 and via their observations of role models around
them
 and their own drives and reinventions.
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Two groups of Identities
 Ting-Toomey differentiates two groups of identities
 Primary and
 Situational identity.
 Primary identities: within the in-group the
importance of cultural identity is played down while
maximising the importance of the personal identity.
 Situational identity: one’s cultural identity gains
importance in interaction with the out-group
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 What distinguishes one person from another is
what identity or identities they emphasise or make
salient at a certain time.
 We have professional identities, national/ethnic
identity, cultural identity, and personal identity.
 The cultural identity might be more prominent
when interacting with members of an out-group
than with in-group peers.
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E.Net Identity
 In the current era, cultural identity does not
necessarily mean an individual’s interaction within
a certain group, but a social network of people
imitating and following the social norms presented
by the media (E.net Individuals!)
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Multicultural Identity
 Conceptions of individual and group identity are
challenged because of the high mobility of people
worldwide.
 These identity challenges will increase as different
cultures continue to come into contact through
overseas job placements, immigration, study abroad,
and bicultural marriages.
 We are asked to develop and achieve a clear
understanding of our personal and cultural identity as
an important step en route to understanding other
cultures.
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A word of Caution
 Some critics argue that the preservation of cultural
identity, being based upon difference, is a divisive
force in society
 (see Amin Maalouf «In the Name of Identity:
Violence and the Need to Belong», 2000, or see
the biography by Ellen Sirleaf Johnson, the first
female President of Liberia/Africa, «This Child will
be Great, 2009)
emPower: Course 2012/Dr. Elisabeth Stern
contact
 elisabeth.stern@bluewin.ch
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