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Human Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 16-The Reproductive System Notes
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___________________-primary sex organs-ie. Testes and ovaries
_______________________--sex cells produced by gonads as well as gonads secrete sex
hormones
_______________________________-remaining reproductive structures
Joint purpose of Reproductive system is produce offspring---via sperm in males and
___________ in females
Zygote becomes embryo and then fetus
I.
Anatomy of Male Reproductive System
 Testes have exocrine-sperm producing- function and endocrine-testosterone
producing
 Accessory structures in delivery of sperm to exterior or to female
1. TESTES Plum shaped---4 cm –sized surrounded by fibrous connective tissue
capsule-_____________________________________-“white coat”
 Extensions of capsule extend into testes and divide into wedgeshaped ______________________each containing 1-4
______________________________________-sperm producing
portion
 Seminiferous tubules empty into another set of tubules--_________________________on each side of testis-sperm travel
from rete to enter 1st part of duct system_______________________________-hugging external testis
 In soft tissue around seminiferous tubules are ____________________________-that produce androgens-esp.
testosterone---thus different tissue process sperm and then
hormones
2. DUCT SYSTEM-inc. edididymis,ducus deferns, and urethra
A.___________________________-highly coiled tube-~6 m-capping
superior testis and extends posterolaterally-temporary storage for
immature sperm entering from testis
 Takes sperm about _____________days to travel
epididymis,maturing along the way...and become motile
 During ejaculation,epididymis contracts to expel ___________into-_________________________________
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B. Ductus Deferens (= vas deferens)-extends upward from epididymis
through inguinal canal,to pelvic cavity and arches over superior
bladder…enclosed w/ blood vessels and nerves and connective tissue sheath______________________ and it travels up through inguinal canal
 Loops medially over ureter and goes down posterior bladder-expands as
ampulla and empties into ________________________________--this
passes through prostate gland and merges w/ urethra
 Main function of ductus deferens is to
_______________________________________________
 At ejaculation smooth muscle squeeze sperm forward by
__________________________________
 A __________________________________is a contraceptive procedure
that ligates-“ties-off” ducus deferns in part that lies in scrotum---sperm
are still produced-but don’t reach body exterior and are phagocytizedrendering male sterile
C. Urethra
 From base bladder to tip of penis-terminal feature of male system-carries urine
and sperm-however both never travel @ same time---bladder sphincter
constricts @ ejaculation preventing this
 3 regions: 1) ________________________________-surrounded by prostrate
2)____________________________________-from prostatic urethra to penis
and 3)___________________________________________-runs length of penis
3. ACCESSORY GLANDS AND SEMEN-inc. paired seminal vesicles,single
prostate,bulbourethral glands and semen
A.________________________________________@ base of bladder make
~60% of seminal fluid-secretion rich in
______________________________________________________________
_________________________________which nourish and activate sperm
 Each of its duct joins vas deferens on same side to form
_____________________________________----thus sperm and
seminal fluid enter urethra during ejaculation
B. Prostate-single doughnut –shaped gland-encircles prostatic urethra
below bladder
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Its glandular milky secretion helps activate sperm---during
ejaculation-fluid enters urethra through several small ducts
Since near rectum,can be palpitated rectally
Older men suffer hypertrophy of gland, strangling urethra-making
urination difficult and increases risk of bladder infections________________________ and kidney damage
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Treatments include :surgery,drugs or microwaves to shrink
prostate,insertion of small balloon to push prostate away from
urethra,incineration w/low energy radiation
 __________________________________-inflammation of prostatecommon
 _______________________________-most prevalent cancer in
men-slow growing,usually
C. ___________________________________________-tiny pea-sized glands
posterior to prostate,produce thick,clear mucus draining into penile urethra----is
1st secretion to pass upon sexual arousal ---functions in cleansing urethra of
acidic urine and is a sexual lubricant
D. Semen-milky white, somewhat sticky mixture of sperm and gland secretions
;transport medium for nutrients and chemicals that protect and aid in
movement of sperm
 Sperm have little cytoplasm or stored nutrients so
__________________ is energy fuel
 pH ~ 7.2-7.6 helps neutralize acidic vagina(3.5-4.0)-protecting
sperm(sperm are sluggish in acidic environment)
 _______________________________________-antibiotic chemical
destroying certain bacteria
 Hormone_______________ Enzymes to enhance sperm motility
 Substances to inhibit female reproductive immune response
 Male infertility---causes include obstruction of duct system,hormone
imbalance , environmental estrogens,pesticides, too much
alcohol….often _______________________________is checked to
analyze sperm count, motility, and morphology,semen volume ,pH,
fructose amount…sperm count should not be below 20 million /mL
4. EXTERNAL GENITALIA-ie. Scrotum and penis
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Scrotum-divided sac of skin outside abdominal cavity,normally hangs loosely,rendering testes
temperature below body temp.( @ ~ 5.4 degrees lower)-necessary for healthy sperm
production ,changes in scrotal surface area help maintain temp—example -wrinkles as pulls
toward body during external cold temp’s
Penis-delivers sperm-consists of shaft,glans penis tip and prepuce or foreskin-loose skin
covering-often removed at circumcision/Internally-spongy urethra by 3 elongated areas of
__________________________________that fill w/ blood during arousal-causing rigid erection
II.
Male Reproductive Functions
A. SPERMATOGENESIS=sperm production-begins @ puberty and is lifelong
 Millions/day
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_____________________________primitive stem cells @ periphery of each
seminiferous tubule/rapid mitotic division to build stem cell line….from
birth to puberty
 @ puberty __________________________________________(FSH) is
secreted in increasing amounts by ant. Pituitary gland…from here on out
,each division produces 1 stem cell-type A daughter ---which remains @
tubule periphery to maintain stem population…and 2nd,type B daughterpushed toward tubule lumen to become primary spermatocyte and will
undergo MEIOSIS
 Gametes @ this stage are called _________________-made by meiosis and
have ½ genetic material (2n in humans=23 x 2)
 As meiosis occurs,primary,then secondary sprematocytes pushed toward
tubule of lumen
 Spermatids NOT functional sperm-nonmotile and excess cellular baggage
 During last stage-______________________________-excess cytoplasm
sloughed off and now have
___________________________________________________,equipped
w/high metabolism and motility
 Sperm head has DNA---essentailly nucleus
 Anterior to head is _____________________made by golgi and similar to
large lysosome---which breaks down @ membrane and releases to help
sperm penetrate follicle of egg
 Filaments make long tail from centriloes in midpiece w/mitochondria
wrapped around for necessary ATP
 All of spermatogenesis-from primary spermatocyte to release of immature
sperm takes 64-72 days
 Sperm in lumen nonmotile and can’t fertilize….moved by peristalsis from
tubules into epididymis---there further maturation and increased motility
 Things that can alter sperm
formation:_____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________maybe producing 2 headed and/or multi-tailed sperm
B. TESTOSTERONE PRODUCTION
 PRODUCED BY INTERSITIAL CELLS
 @ puberty FSH prods sperm production and
____________________________________(LH) is also released by anterior
pituitary on from here on out testosterone is produced continuosly,rising
levels responsible for secondary sexual
characteristics:_________________________________________________
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III.
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
 ______________________________________-testosterone not produced
and secondary sex characteristics not produced….castration will cause this
or malfunction of interstitial cells…also cause sterility
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY
 Function in producing gametes(ova) and nurture/protect developing fetus
 _____________________primary reproductive organs-both exocrine and
endocrine in nature
A. OVARIES
 Shape of almonds but about twice as large
 Internally ________________________-each consisting of an
immature egg-oocyte-surrounded by 1 or more layers called
_________________________________
 As developing egg matures follicle enlarges and produces fluid
filled antrum-At this point follicle is called vesicular or
_________________follicle,which is mature and ready to
released during _______________________________.
 After ovulation,ruptured follicle is transformed into
_____________________________--“yellow body”,which
degenerates
 Ovulation ~ every 28 days….in older women ovaries are scarred
and pitted from release of many eggs
 Ovaries secured to lateral pelvis by
_______________________________and medially by
___________________________and in between held by fold of
peritoneum-broad ligament
B. DUCT SYSTEM-uterine tube,uterus and vagina
1. Fallopian(uterine) tubes—internal duct system
 receive ovulated oocyte and provide fertilization site
 each about 4” long,extends medially from ovary to empty in
superior uterus
 enclosed and supported by broad ligament
 little or no contact between fallopian tubes and ovariesinstead contact @ distal end is by funnel-shaped
___________________________________________that
has fingerlike projections-fimbriae that surround ovary
WHICH create fluidlike current that carries oocyte into
fallopian tube---to thus journey to uterus
 At this point is where many potential eggs are lost in
peritoneal cavity
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Cilia and peristalsis move oocyte along to uterus-taking
about 3-4 days,but egg is viable ~24 hrs. after ovulation,so
fertilization is usually in fallopian tube
 To reach oocyte,sperm must swim up through vagina and
uterus to fallopian tubes---swimming against a downward
beat of Cilia!
 Because fallopian tubes and ovaries are not physically
continuous,this makes this area vulnerable to infection,such
as bacterta of Gonorrhea…maybe causing
__________________________________________which
can cause scarring and closing of tubes
2. Uterus-located in pelvis between bladder and rectum
 Hallow/functions to receive,retain,and nourish a fertilized
egg
 About the size and shape of a pear in women who haven’t
been pregnant
 Suspended by broad ligament and anchored by round and
uterosacral ligaments
 _________________=main portion
 _________________-superior,rounded region above
fallopian tube entrance
 ______________-narrow outlet into vagina below
 Wall is thick w/3 layers:1)inner mucosa__________________________-At implantation-fertilized
egg burrows here/This layer sloughs off during
________________-menstruation every 28 days-- if not
fertilized
2)________________________-interlacing bundles of
smooth muscle making bulky middle layer-contracts during
labor 3) perimetrium-outer serous layer(visceral
peritoneum)
 __________________________________-common
in women 30-50-risks factors inc. cervical
inflammation,STDs,multiple
pregnancies,promiscuity/detected w/Pap
smear/slow growing ,usually
3. Vagina-thin-walled tube 3-4”long/between bladder and rectum
from cervix to body exterior=birth canal./also organ of copulation
 Distally partially enclosed by __________mucosawhich is very vascular and bleeds when ruptured
C. EXTERNAL GENITALIA=VULVA
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mons pubis-fatty,rounded area overlying pubic
symphysis-hair after puberty
laterally are 2 skin flods w/hair-labia majora
(encloses vestibulewhich houses external urethra
opening and vagina )and l.minora
____________________________________
surround vagina and secretes for distal vagina
Clitoris-small protrusion that is corresponding to
penis w/erectile tissue but no reproductive duct
___________________-between ant. labial
folds,anus and ischial tuberosities
IV.FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS AND CYCLES
A. OOGENESIS AND THE OVARIAN CYCLE
 Females’ reproductive ability begins at puberty and ends around 50’s(menopause)
 In developing female fetus,_______________________-female stem cells multiply
rapidly to increase their numbers,then daughter cells-primary oocytes-push into ovary
connective tissueand primary follicle forms around them
 By birth,oogonia cease to exist and a lifetime supply of primary oocytes are in place--waiting 10-14 years to undergo MEIOSIS!
 @ puberty , ant. Pituitary produces_____________________________FSH-stimulates a
small # of primary follicles to grow and mature each month and then ovulation occurs
monthly….constituting the _________________cycle
 @ puberty ~ 250,000 oocytes remain w/ a small # activated each month….appx 500 of
the 250,000 ova are released in the limited # of years of fertility
 The FSH prods the follicle to enlarge ,accumulating fluid in central antrum/Primary
oocyte replicates chromosomes and MEIOSIS occurs-producing 1
____________________________and polar bodies
 Follicle development to the point of rupture takes about 14 days with
_______________________ occurring at just about this time
 Ovulation occurs at the response to ______________________________________LH
 Secondary oocyte is still surrounded by follicle cell capsule now
called__________________________(“radiating crown”)…abdominal pain can
accompany this-mittelschmerz
 1 developing follicle dominates each month/mature follicles not ovulated are overripe
and deteriorate
 Besides triggering ovulation each month,LH aso causes ruptured follicle to turn into
corpus luteum(Both c.luteum and maturing follicle produce hormones)
 If ovulated, secondary oocyte is penetrated by sperm in fallopian tube,THEN oocyte
undergoes_________________________________making another polar body and
ovum
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….its 23 chromosomes are combined w/23 of sperm in fertilized egg
If not fertilized, deteriorates
Polar bodies deteriorate
Sperm v. egg:-sperm relies mostly on surrounding for nutrients,while—egg larger
and______________________-stocked w/ nutrients
B. UTERINE (MENSTRUAL) CYCLE
 receptive to implantation only briefly---~ 7 days after ovulation
 events of ____________________________________ are cyclic changes that
endometrium goes through monthly in response to ovarian hormone changes
 Anterior pituitary ______________________________ hormones FSH and LH regulate
Ovarian estrogen and progesterone
 Typically cycle is 28 days w/ovulation occurring midway
 3 stages:
1)_____________________________________--superficial functional layer of thick
endometrium is sloughed off-accompanied by 3-5 days bleeding---passing out vagina as
menstrual flow/average blood loss 50-150mL(1/4-1/2 cup)….By day 5 ovarian follicles
begin to produce estrogen
2)_____________________________________________---is stimulated by estrogen
levels to cause basal layer of endometrium to regenerate ,glands form w/in and
endometrial blood supply increases…endometrium restores to velvety,thick and well
vascularized—ovulation @ end of this phase in response to LH
3)____________________________________________-progestrone levels have
risen(by corpus luteum) and act on estrogen charged endometrium and increase blood
supply more/also increasing size of endometrial glands and begin supplying nutrients
into uterine cavity to sustain an embryo until implanted
 If fertilization does occur,embryo produces hormone similar to LH-causes
______________________________________________________
 If fertilization does NOT occur,c. luteum degenerates and LH levels drop…This causes
vessels supplying endometrium to go into spasms and kink—causing endometrial cellsdeprived of O2 –to die ….setting stage for next menses
 Cycle can vary from 21-40 days ,but time of ovulation is usually @ 14-15 days
C. HORMONE PRODUCTION BY OVARIES
 Begin @ puberty
 Follicle cells of growing follicles produce_______________________-causing the
appearance of secondary sex characteristics :enlargement of fallopian tubes, vagina and
external genitalia ;development of breasts ;axillary and pubic hair ;increased fat in hips
and breasts and in general; Widening and lightening of pelvis; Onset of menses
 Estrogen also has metabolic effects---ex-maintaing blood cholesterol(high HDL) and
help Ca2+ uptake
 Other ovarian hormone is ______________________________made by c.luteum as
long as LH is present in blood…stopping 10-14 days after ovulation/helps establish
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menses w/estrogen,but does NOT contribute to secondary sex traits…plays a role in
pregnancy by inhibiting contraction of endometrium and
prepares____________________________________________________(source of
progesterone in pregnancy is placenta)
V.MAMMARY GLANDS
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In both sexes ,but has normal functions in female---being important only once
reproduction is accomplished—stimulated to increase size by estrogen
Are actually modified sweat glands and part of integument ,in that sense….and
anterior to pectoral muscles
________________________-center pigmented area w/protruding nipple
Internally has 15-25 lobes radiating around nipple/lobes are padded and
separated by connective tissue and fat
Within each lobe are smaller _______________________ w/clusters of alveolar
glands that ________________________-produce milk into lactiferous ducts
opening via the nipple to the outside
________________________________-2nd most common cause of death in
American women---1 in 8 developing this condition….~10% hereditary and half
traced to BRCA 1 and 2 gene/80% of women w/ gene contract cancer---other
risk factors inc. early menses,late menopause,estrogen replacement
therapy….Breast cancer is signaled by change in skin texture ,puckering and
nipple leakage…can be detected by self examination and by
________________________________-X-rays that reveal tumors too small to
feel(<1 cm.)
VI. SURVEYOF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT AND PREGNANCY
A. ACCOMPLISHING FERTILIZATION
 Sperm must reach secondary oocyte-viable 12-24 hours after leaving ovary/sperm
viable ~ 24-48 hrs….Therfore, intercourse must occur no more than 2 days before
ovulation and no later than 24 hrs. after ovulation---when oocyte is appx. 1/3 way down
fallopian tube
 Sperm attracted to oocyte by “homing device” chemicals—locating oocyte
 Sperm take __hours to reach fallopian tube,however many leak out or are destroyed by
vagina’s acidity---only a few hundred –few thousand make it to area of egg’s location
 When sperm reach oocyte,cell surface hyraluronidase enzymes break down “cement”
holding follicle cells of corona radiate around oocyte
 Once path cleared through corona,1000’s sperm
undergo_________________________________________where acrosome membrane
break down-releasing enzymes to lyse through oocyte membrane….then a single sperm
can make contact w/oocyte membrane receptors---pulling head(nucleus) of sperm pulled
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into oocyte cytoplasm….****sperm reaching this point after acrosomal reactions have
started are the more likely to fertilize
After a sperm has reached oocyte,2nd meiosis occurs---making ovum and polar body
Changes in fertilized egg preventing other sperm entry
_____________________________occurs @ moment genetic material of sperm
combines w/ that of ovum to make______________________-fertilized egg
B.EVENTS OF EMBRYONIC AND FETAL DEVELOPMENT
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Rapid MITOTIC division as zygote goes down fallopian tube________________________,w/daughter cells becoming smaller and smaller—large # of cells
will be building block of embryo-until 9th week
By time embryo reaches uterus(3 days after ovulation)=_________________-ball of 16 cells
looking like a raspberry…Since uterus not totally prepared for embryo yet, embryo floats in
uterine cavity---using uterine secretions for nutreints @ this time---Unattached,continues to
develop to ~ 100 cells---It then hallows out to form_____________________or chorionic vesicle
@ this same time ,it is secreting a hormone called______________________________(hCG)-this
prods c.luteum of ovary continue hormone production(otherwise,endometrium would shed)
Pregnancy tests usually detect______________levels
Blastocyst also has ________________________-forming large fluid-filled sphere and also an
inner cell mass-small cell cluster to one side
By day 7 after ovulation,blastocyst attahes to endometrium,eroding away some of lining and
envelops into thick mucosa
During this time the primary germ layers are forming from inner mass:
1. ______________________gives rise to nervous system and epidermis
2. ______________________forms mucosa and associated glands
3. __________________________gives rises to basically everything else
 By day 14 after ovulation,implantation is complete and mucosa grown over
embryo…The ______________of the blastocyst develops projections called chorionic
villi,combining w/uterus to produce __________________________
 Once placenta has formed,embryonic body is surrounded
by_____________________________-fluid –filled sac and attaches w/blood vessel
stalk-_____________________________________
 By 3rd week,placenta delivers nutrients and O2 to and removes wastes from
embryonic blood---all through ____________________________
 By end of 2nd month,placeta becomes endocrine organ producing
estrogen,progesterone,and other hormones to maintain pregnancy…c.luteum
becomes inactive
 By week 8--all organ systems laid down in some form and looks human
 Week 9—Now called__________-now growth and organ specialization are major
activities
 As fetus,grows from ~ 3cm. and 1g to 36 cm(14”),~4kg(6-10 lbs.)…at birth ~ 22”
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B.
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 270 days-10th lunar month-full term
EFFECTS OF PREGNANCY ON MOTHER
 ___________________________-period from conception to birth
1. Anatomical changes Uterus goes from fist sized to eventually nearing level of xiphoid process-thorax widens
as organs press on diaphragm
 Center of gravity changes sometimes causing lordosois---thus backaches
 Placental hormone____________________causes pelvic ligaments and pubic symphsis to
relax,widen and become more flexible
 Good nutrition necessary—needing only about 300 calories extra/day
 Substances that can cross placental barriers are alcohol,nicotine,many drugs and
maternal infections
 _________________ termination of pregnancy by loss of fetus---spontaneous abortion is
a miscarriage
2. Physiological Changes
GI system-morning sickness usually first trimester,as mother adjusts to elevated
estrogens;heartburn because of displaced esophagus and displaced stomach;constipation –
because GI motility decreased
Urinary system-kidneys now need to dispose of fetal metabolic wastes,producing MORE
urine;also uterus compresses bladder---frequent urination-Ie. stress incontinence
Respiratory System-nasal mucosa responds to estrogen by swelling and congested,maybe
nosebleeds ;respiratory rate increases but residual volume declines causing_______________difficult breathing in later stages
Cardiovascular system-Total body water rises and blood volume increases 25-40%---helping in
safeguarding from blood loss effects during labor;BP and pulse increase and raise cardiac output
20-40%;venous return from lower limbs may be impaired---maybe causing varicose veins
c. CHILDBIRTH=________________________
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Usually w/in 15 days of calculated due date (280 days from last menstrual period)
_________________-series of events that expel infant from uterus
1) Initiation of labor
 Estrogen has reached highest levels causing myometrium to form much
___________________________receptors-to be receptive to that hormone
AND interfering with progesterone’s quieting influence on uterine muscle—causing weak uterine
contractions---called ______________________________contractions—often producing false labor
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Then ,cells of fetus produce oxytocin and this stimulates placenta to release
________________________________________stimulating more frequent and
powerful contractions
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Mom’s hypothalamus activated by emotional and physical stress---signals oxytocin
release by posterior pituitary gland ---rhythmic ,expulsive contractions-TRUE
LABOR…positive feedback mechanism now w/hypothalamus,strengthening
contractions
 Anything that interferes w/oxytocin or proglastins can hinder onset of
labor….example--antiproglastin drugs such as aspirin and ibuprofen
2) Stages of Labor
1st-_____________________________from time of true contractions until full-10 cmdilation of cervix….contractions move from upper uterus to vagina,becoming more vigorous
and softening cervix and thinning….amnion ruptures-“water –breaking”-----usually 6-12
hours or MORE!!!
2nd-Expulsion stage-full dilation to delivery…urge increases to push 20 min -50 min.--sometimes 2 hrs
 Infant should be head first-Vertex position-skull as a wedge to dilate cervix…after
head,rest of body comes out more easily…umbilical cord clamped off
 _______________-buttocks-first
 ________________________-during a difficult 2nd stage,O2 delivery inadequate
leading to cerebral palsy or epilepsy….often a C-section done to prevent these
rd
3 -_____________________________________-w/in 15 min.placenta usually expelled--placenta and other fetal membranes constitute ____________________
VII. DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS
Gonads from 8th week and then accessory structures and external genitalia….all depends on presence or
absence of testosterone
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If genetic male fails to produce testosterone-female accessory structures form and external
genitalia…
--If genetic female exposed to testosterone-male accessory ducts and glands as well as penis
and scrotum….both cases are pseudohermaphrodites----a true hermaphrodite possesses
ovaries and testes-rare case
XO female appears normal but lacks ovaries/YO males perish
__________________narrowing of foreskin of penis and misplaced urethral openings
_________________________________________-failure of full descent of testes
Puberty @ 10-15 yrs.
________________________=period ~11-13---taking another 2 years for dependable ovulation
Most common problem in females are infection-sometimes caused by STD’s
Male inflammatory conditions include
___________________________________________________________,maybe following STD
transmission
__________________________-inflammation of testes….maybe following STD or mumps
Neoplasms a danger in both genders
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Women reach peak reproductive abilities @ late 20’s,estrogen declines eventually
producing________________-producing a ceasing of menses—irritability and mood changes can
accompany
Dangers can accompany HRT
Its all downhill…! 