Social Perspectives on Gender
© 2005, John B. Pryor
Illinois State University
Gender Stereotypes
Broverman et a. (1972)
Competency cluster:
aggressive, direct,
independent, active,
not emotional,
objective, worldly,
logical, dominant,
acts as a leader,
never cries

warmthexpressiveness
cluster:
gentle, tactful, quite,
religious, neat,
aware of others’
feelings, easily
expresses tender
feelings, enjoys art &
literature, need for
security

Describe a healthy, mature, sociallly competent
a) male, b) female, or c) adult (sex unspecified)





Healthy women are
expected to be
less:
independent
adventurous
aggressive
competitive





Healthy women are
expected to be
more:
submissive
easily influenced
excitable in minor
crises
conceited about
their appearance
from Broverman, et al.
Consequences of stereotypes
at work




Ideal managers are described as more male-like
(women no longer believe this in the U.S.)
Stereotypes of people who earn more money
involve strong increases in positive male qualities
(e.g., independence) moderate increases in
negative male qualities (e.g., aggressiveness) and
overall decreases in female qualities
Employees question the competency of female
managers
Female leaders receive more negative non-verbal
cues from groups members than men
Leadership Styles of Women and Men
From Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & Engen (2003)
•Women are more likely than men to be
TRANFORMATIONAL LEADERS
-Transformational leaders communicate values, purpose,
and importance of organization’s mission
-Transformational leaders exhibit optimism & excitement
about goals
-Transformational leaders examine new perspectives for
solving problems
-Transformational leaders focus on the development and
mentoring of followers
•Men are more likely than women to be TRANSACTIONAL or
LAISSEZ-FARE LEADERS
19
51
19
53
19
55
19
57
19
59
19
61
19
63
19
65
19
67
19
69
19
71
19
73
19
75
19
77
19
79
19
81
19
83
19
85
19
87
19
89
19
91
19
93
19
95
19
97
19
99
20
01
20
03
Percent
Women's Earning in the US as a Percent of
Men's Earnings
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Year
countries
tu
ga
l
89
Po
r
88
It
al
y
lg
iu
m
87
Be
e
86
Fr
an
c
83
ec
e
82
re
81
86
G
90
Sp
ai
n
g
Sw
ed
en
D
en
m
ar
k
em
bo
ur
81
Lu
x
m
an
y
er
79
G
79
Fi
nl
an
d
rla
nd
s
78
he
ria
ng
do
m
el
an
d
at
es
Au
st
Ki
Ir
St
75.5
78
N
et
ni
te
d
d
ni
te
percent
80
U
U
Gender Wage Gap Comparing USA to Selected European
Countries
100
91
95
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Reasons women
expect lower salaries
 Women
expect to take more time off
work (e.g. for child rearing)
 Women place less importance on
job outcomes than men
 Women earn less in reality
 Women have lower self-confidence
in many achievement situations
Stereotypes are
maintained even
when the evidence is
conflicting.
Research by Deaux
Weiner’s Taxonomy
ATTRIBUTIONS ABOUT
PERFORMANCE
INTERNAL
EXTERNAL
TEMPORAR Y
EFFORT
LUCK
STABLE
ABILITY
TASK
DIFFICULTY
Why do women
fail?
Why do women
succeed?
Why do men
fail?
Why do men
succeed?
“He’s skilled,
she’s lucky”
Swim & Sanna, 1996
Women generally do not
score as high as men on
standardized
tests of math and
science competence.
Why?
The Performance of Women on MasculineTasks is Influenced by Stereotype Threat




Stereotype Threat is being concerned about a
negative stereotype of your group. For
example, women might be concerned about
the stereotype that women are inferior in
math.
This concern can lead to distress and
distraction when stereotypes are thought to be
relevant to performance
This distress can interfere with performance
Some women are more conscious of group
membership (I.e., being a woman) than others
Schmader (2003)




Male & Female college students selected who
scored 500-700 on quantitative part of SAT
Measured Collective Self-Esteem: e.g., “Being
a woman/man is an important part of my selfimage.”
Participants told either that their scores on a
test would be compared to other students or
that males and females would be compared-Gender Relevance Manipulation
Participants took math section of GRE
Gender Identification as a Moderator of Gender Identity Relevance
Effects on Women's and Men's Math Performance (Schmader,
Only significant
Male/female
difference
7
Math Test Performance
6
5
4
Low Identified
High Identified
3
2
1
0
Men
Women
Gender Identity Not Relevant
Men
Women
Gender Identity Relevant
What are the actual gender
differences in social behavior?
Eagly & Wood (1991)
Nine sex differences in adults observed
across many studies:
1. Women are better at sending and
receiving messages nonverbally.
2. Women conform to group pressure
more than men.
3. Women act more friendly and agree
more with other group members in small
groups.
Eagly & Wood (1991)
4. Men are more strictly task-oriented in
work groups.
5. All female groups typically perform
better than all male groups.
6. Men are more likely to emerge as
leaders in initially leaderless groups.
Eagly & Wood (1991)
7. Men are more helpful in short-term
interactions with strangers.
8. Men behave more aggressively to
others than women, particularly when
the aggression brings about physical
harm or pain.
9. Women report more life satisfaction and
happiness than men.
Why do
women
and men
differ in
their
social
behaviors?
Three types of explanations of sex
differences (Wood & Eagly, 2002)



Social constructionism - e.g., Eagly’s SocialRole Theory - sex differences are the products
of arbitrary socialization experiences
Evolutionary psychology - sex differences are
“hard-wired” - the results of evolutionary
pressures
Biosocial theory - sex differences are
emergent from biological differences (e.g.,
male size & female capacity to bear children),
developmental experiences (e.g.,
socialization), and cultural factors
Analyses from 185 societies show
male/female divisions of labor
Percent of male participation




Predominantly masculine activities:
Hunting large land fauna (99.3%)
Quasi-masculine activities:
House building (77.4%)
Swing activities:
Care of small animals (35.9%)
Quasi-feminine activities:
Cooking (8%)
Eagly’s Social-Role Theory of
sex differences in social behavior
Gender-Role
Expectations
Division of Labor
Between the Sexes
Sex-Typed
Skills & Beliefs
Sex Differences
in Social Behavior
Analyses from 185 societies show male/female
divisions of labor
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