Lecture 4: The concept of
landscape
Outline:
 Landscape character: nature and people
 Perception: evaluation and assessment
 Policy development
 Seminar: video presentation “A
postcard from the Country – The
Highlands of Scotland: in search of
wilderness”
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Question:
What do we mean by
“landscape”?
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What is landscape?
 Some uses of the word…
- an expanse of scenery that can be seen in a
single view
- painting depicting an expanse of natural scenery
- embellishment with plants, rocks, etc.
- a genre of art dealing with the depiction of
natural scenery
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Question:
How has art shaped our view
of wild landscapes
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Ante Mortem by Syd Scroggie
I will attempt the Capel track
Old, stiff and retrograde
And get some pal to shove me on
Should resolution fade
For I must see black Meikle Pap
Against a starry sky
And watch the dawn from Lochnagar
Once more before I die.
The golden plover whistled there
Before the Fall of Man
And you can hear the brittle croak
Of lonely ptarmigan,
No heather there but boulders bare
and quartz and granite grit
and ribs of snow bleak, old and grey
As I remember it.
And if I do not make the top
Then sit me on a stone
Some lichen'd rock amongst the screes
And leave me there alone,
Yes leave me there alone to hear
Where spout and buttress are
The breeze that stirs the little loch
On silent Lochnagar.
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Away ye grey landscapes, ye gardens o' roses
In you let the minions of luxury rove
And restore me the rocks where the snowflake reposes
If still they are sacred to freedom and love
Brave Caledonia, dear are thy mountains
Round their white summits though elements war
Though cataracts roar 'stead of smooth-flowing fountains
I sigh for the valley o' dark Lochnagar
Lord Byron, Dark Lochnagar
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1. Landscape character:
nature and people
 Landscape is more than just a backdrop to
our lives
- source of invaluable economic and spiritual
resources
- a historic record of human activity
- helps us define our sense of who we are
 Landscape character is defined as
- “a distinct, recognisable and consistent pattern
of elements in the landscape that makes one
landscape different from another, rather than
better or worse” (Countryside Agency)
- it is that which makes an area unique
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1. Landscape character: nature and
people (cont’d)

Components of landscape
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Biophysical
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terrain (relief, variability, geomorphology, etc.)
water inc. snow & ice (presence, type, quality)
flora and fauna (variety, condition, etc.)
Socio-psychological
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land use inc. urban (type, extent, modification)
transport (accessibility, intrusion)
other human features (powerlines, dams, etc.)
cultural (presence, type)
people (numbers, activities, behaviour, etc.)
mystery
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Question:
what is special about wild
landscapes?
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2. Perception: evaluation and
assessment
“Scenery is a natural resource...
[to determine which landscapes are of high quality and deserve
attention by resource managers, it is essential...] to attempt the
evaluation of scenic resources in some objective and
quantitative fashion” (Linton, 1968, p.219)
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“Landscape is the work of the mind …it
scenery is built up as much from the strata
of memory as from layers of rock.”
(Simon Schama)
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2. Perception: evaluation and assessment
(cont’d)
“Beauty cannot be described: therefore
it Cannot be defined... measured... [or] made
the basis of a science”(Kates, 1967, p.22)
“It’s about time that environmentalists supported their
arguments... [about landscape aesthetics] with
numbers”(Leopold, 1969, p.41)
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2. Perception: evaluation and assessment
(cont’d)
 What’s in a view?
 What can be seen from where is a key
component of landscape analysis
- depends strongly on terrain variables
- can be quantified using visibility analysis
• what, how much and what quality?
• use Geographical Information Systems (GIS)
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2. Perception: evaluation and assessment
(cont’d)
 Case study: wildland in Scotland
- The uplands and coasts are highly valued
hallmarks of Scotland’s landscape
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•
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spectacular and distinctive scenery
wildlife of high conservation importance
major focus for outdoor recreation
Remote and natural areas now widely referred to
as ‘wild land’
- Subject to steady attrition due to various types
of development
• including hydropower schemes, afforestation and
the construction of bulldozed tracks
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2. Perception: evaluation and assessment
(cont’d)
 A brief history
- Gaelic history, culture and society
• warring clans and bashing the
“Sassenach”
• Robert de Bruce, William Wallace, Rob
Roy, Bonnie Prince Charlie, etc.
• the C18/19th “Clearances” and
subsequent oppression by the “English”
• focus on the Highlands and Islands
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2. Perception: evaluation and assessment
(cont’d)
 Significance of tourism and
media
- Scotland as a Victorian “invention”
• Tartan and the Kilt
• Sporting estates
- C19th Romanticism - paintings and
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-
poetry of Scott, Byron, Landseer,
Burns, etc.
an image transplanted into global
folklore
perpetuated in promoting modern
tourism and Hollywood versions of
history (e.g. Braveheart and Rob
Roy)
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2. Perception: evaluation and assessment
(cont’d)
 Perception of wild Scotland
- Conflicting images of the Highlands:
• Wild and untamed landscape
• Steeped in history, heroism and romance
• The land as “Emptied… not empty”
- Current patterns of wild land
• Remoteness, rugged terrain, harsh climate, sparse
population (historic)
• Mapped using GIS methods
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2. Perception: evaluation and assessment
(cont’d)
 Wild land mapping
- Wilderness Continuum Concept
• Remoteness from population and access
• Naturalness of vegetation and lack of human
artefacts (Lesslie and Maslen, 1995)
- GIS methods
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Multi-criteria evaluation (Carver & Fritz, 1998)
Fuzzy modelling (Fritz et al., 2000)
Public participation GIS (Carver et al., 2002)
Historic trends (Carver and Wrightham, 2004)
Perception surveys (Carver et al., 2005)
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3. Policy development
 Defining wilderness landscapes
- important step in developing policy for protection
- Wilderness often defined in terms of human
values of ‘wildness’ attributed to particular
places or landscapes.
• US Wilderness Act (1964)
• Finnish Wilderness Act (1991)
• Scottish Natural Heritage (2002)
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3. Policy development (cont’d)
 Wilderness as a human concept
- wilderness is:
• An idea… an ideal
• NOT discrete or objective… i.e. a ‘fuzzy’ concept
• A place that exists in the mind as much as it does
on a map!
- dependent on individual perception, social and
cultural background, and personal experience…
“One man’s wilderness is another’s roadside picnic ground.”
(Nash, 1982)
- champions of the wild: the main actors
• NTS, JMT and SNH
• Scottish Wildland Group
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3. Policy development (cont’d)
 Wildland policy in Scotland
“Uninhabited and often relatively inaccessible
countryside where the influence of human activity
on the character and quality of the environment has
been minimal.” (NPPG 14, 1998)
“There are parts of Scotland where the wild
character of the landscape, its related recreational
value and potential for nature are such that these
areas should be safeguarded against inappropriate
development or land-use change.” (SNH, July 2002)
http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/polstat/pd-wsc.pdf
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3. Policy development (cont’d)
 The National Trust fro Scotland
 Founded 1931
- guardian of the nation's architectural, scenic
-
and historic treasures
270,000 members
128 properties including
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Torridon (15,908a)
Kintail and Morvich (18,362a)
West Affric (9,049a)
Mar Lodge estate, Cairngorm (72,598a)
Glencoe and Dalness (12,800a)
And several remote western isles
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3. Policy development (cont’d)
 NTS Wildland Policy statement:
“Wild land in Scotland is relatively remote and
inaccessible, not noticeably affected by contemporary
human activity, and offers high-quality opportunities
to escape from the pressures of everyday living and
find physical and spiritual refreshment… The primary
purpose will be to identify, protect and enhance the
‘core wild land’ areas of Scotland.”
(NTS, January 2002)
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3. Policy development (cont’d)
 The Unna Principles:
“…the land (should) be maintained in its primitive
condition for all time with unrestricted access to the
public.” (Percy Unna, November 1937)
“The general principle of management is to avoid any
reduction in wild land quality.” (NTS, January 2002)
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the hills should not be made easier or safer to climb.
no facilities should be introduced for mechanical
transport; that paths should not be extended or
improved; and that new paths should not be made.
no directional or other signs, whether signposts,
paint marks, cairns, or of any other kind whatsoever,
should be allowed.
no other facilities should be afforded for obtaining
lodging, shelter, food or drink; and, especially, that
no shelters of any kind be built on the hills.
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3. Policy development (cont’d)
 The John Muir Trust
 Formed in 1983 “to protect and conserve wild places and to
increase awareness and understanding of the value of such places.”
- Works closely with local communities.
- Believes that sustainable conservation can only
be achieved by recognising special qualities of
wild places and understanding the human factors
and other aspects which contribute to the
landscape we think of - and value - as wild.
- Developed a concordat with SNH on care of wild
places in Scotland
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JMT properties:
• Sandwood Bay
• Torrin (5,498a)
• Strathaird (16,062a)
• Sconser (8,401a)
• Ben Nevis (4,158a)
• Li & Coire Dhorrcail
• Schiehallion (2,310a)
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3. Policy development (cont’d)
 Aims of the JMT
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to conserve wild places and their landscapes, both
for their own sake and for the sustenance and
inspiration they give to humanity;
to protect existing wild places so as to conserve
their natural processes, and their indigenous
animals, plants and soils;
to renew wild places, where they have been
damaged, by encouraging natural processes;
to work with local communities and to encourage
them to live in harmony with wild places;
to promote an awareness and understanding of wild
places for their own sake and for their value to the
benefit of humanity;
to stimulate public support to help protect wild
places;
to encourage voluntary participation in the
conservation and renewal of wild places.
http://www.jmt.org/policy/index.html
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3. Policy development (cont’d)

A Declaration for the wild
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The UK and devolved governments must actively
demonstrate that they recognise the importance of
large areas of wild land and of all wild places as an
integral part of our national culture and heritage by:
1. Encouraging and supporting people of all ages and of all
backgrounds to experience and understand the value of
wild places, for the benefit of their health and spiritual well
being.
2. Supporting local communities and land managers by
developing a new, broader range of grants and incentive
schemes to help restore and enhance wild land.
3. Reviewing planning policy and legislation to strengthen the
protection and enhancement of wild land.
4. Establishing a forum to agree a national strategy for the
appropriate siting of renewable energy developments.
5. Ratifying the Council of Europe’s Landscape Convention and
embracing the responsibility to protect our national
landscape heritage.
http://www.jmt.org/policy/declare.html
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3. Policy development (cont’d)
 JMT/SNH concordat
 Working together to care for the wild places
in Scotland through shared aims
- Framework Agreement with SNH to broaden and
strengthen JMTs ability
Scotland
“JMT recognises and supports
the role of SNH in the
conservation and
enhancement Scotland's
natural heritage and wishes to
work closely with SNH for the
furtherance of common aims.”
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to care for Wild Land in
“SNH recognises and supports
the holistic approach of JMT in
securing a long-term future of
Scotland's wild places and
wishes to work closely with JMT
for the furtherance of common
aims.”
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3. Policy development (cont’d)

Enhancers
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
Sense of remoteness
Size of area and scale of landscape
Scenic grandeur
Surrounded by sea (islands)
Solitude
Roughness of terrain, harsh climate
Peacefulness, quietness
Absence of contemporary human
activity or development
Seemingly natural environment
Evokes emotional experience whether
first hand or at a distance
Absence of re-assurance in a hazardous
and challenging environment
Physically demanding experience
resulting in a sense of achievement
Ruins and disused structures – where
they add scale and fit the landscape
Detractors
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Recent signs of human activity,
particularly ‘man in charge of nature’
including intensive agriculture and
insensitive forestry
Recent human artefacts (including
litter)
Presence of crowds or group activity
Unsympathetic recreation activities
Man-made noise
Facilities to make recreation easier or
safer
Ecological imbalance
Visual intrusions e.g. roads, pylons,
fences
Mechanical transport
Low flying jets & helicopters
(After NTS, 2002)http://www.nts.org.uk/web/FILES/wild_land_policy_2002.pdf
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3. Policy development (cont’d)
Attributes
Main Criteria
Perceived naturalness
Functioning natural habitats
Unmodified catchment systems
Lack of constructions or
other artefacts
No recent buildings/works
Little impact from large structures outside area
Little evidence of
contemporary land uses
Little effects from older remains
Only extensive grazing and field sports
Rugged or otherwise
challenging terrain
Striking topographic features and difficult terrain
Natural settings for recreation providing hard physical
exercise and challenge
Remoteness and
inaccessibility
Distance from settlement and communications
Limited access either by scale of area and/or lack of easy
access
Extent of area
Area sufficient to engender feeling of remoteness and
solitude
(After SNH, July 2002)
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http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/polstat/pd-wsc.pdf
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3. Policy development (cont’d)
 Drivers of changing land use patterns
- Reduction in domestic stocking densities
• Sheep and cattle numbers falling (Subsidies)
• Red deer numbers artificially maintained at high
level (Estate management)
- Increasing emphasis on sporting estates and
changing access methods:
• from foot and horseback to 4WD
• leading to bulldozed hill tracks
- Exploitation of hydropower resource (dams,
reservoirs and power lines)
• flooding valleys
• changing access arrangements
- New threat from wind farm proposals?
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Summary
 Landscapes: mental image vs physical
 Landscape character and perception
- Human and physical geography
 Wildland policy in Scotland
- SNH, NTS and JMT
- What about England and Wales?
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Reading
Bell, S (1999) Landscape: pattern, perception
and process. Spon, London.
Gaddis, L (2004) The landscape of history: how
historians map the past. OUP.
McCarthy, J (2004) An inhabited solitude:
Scotland, land and people. Luath Press,
Edinburgh.
Mitchell, I (1988) Scotland’s mountains before
the mountaineers. Luath Press, Edinburgh.
Wildland policies for Scotland (see web links
for SNH, NTS and JMT policies under “Tasks”)
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Task
 Read policy documents for wildland in
Scotland:
- SNH
• http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/polstat/pd-wsc.pdf
- NTS
• http://www.nts.org.uk/web/FILES/wild_land_policy_2002.pdf
- JMT
• http://www.jmt.org/policy/JMT_wildland.html
 Think about how these might be extended or
adapted for England and Wales
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Workshop:
Video presentation:
Postcard from the country
The Scottish Highlands:
In search of wilderness
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Next week...
5. Recreational use of wilderness and
wildland
 Wilderness recreation and benefits
 Economics and development
 Management of recreational use
 Workshop: developing a wildland
policy for England and Wales
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