All-nighters, Getting Drunk, and Smoking Cancer Sticks: Analyzing Lifestyle Factors of College
Students and the Short Term Effects of Moderate Intensity Exercise on the Cardiovascular
System
Cristina Figueroa
Human Physiology BIO 246
Dr. Bobby Fokidis
28 April 2014
Figueroa |2
Abstract
Over time, various studies have shown the significance of moderate exercise on lowering
the risk factors leading to cardiovascular disease. This experiment aims to test if exercise can
improve the health of three subjects who exhibit particular factors in their daily lives. The exact
factors present in the subjects’ lives are: sleep deprivation, alcohol intake, and smoking
cigarettes. These subjects are devoid of major health complications and did not suffer from any
illnesses at the time of the study. All subjects had little to no routine of an exercise regimen
before this experiment. Participants include female college students between the ages of 20-24
years old. Subjects had their cardiac activity, body fat percentage, and blood pressure measured
once a week over a time span of three weeks using the BIOPAC acquisition system. Body fat
percentage was taken using the Omron Fat Loss Monitor. Blood pressure was recorded using an
aneroid sphygmomanometer. Exercise consisted of cardio at a moderate intensity pace for fortyfive minutes five days a week, as well as strength training with weights three days a week
focusing on the abdominal, arm, and leg muscles. Each subject was responsible for keeping a
journal where they kept a record of their exercise activity, water intake, daily caloric intake,
number of hours slept, number of alcoholic drinks daily, and number of cigarettes smoked.
Subjects had a decreasing trend in percentage body fat after following a consistent exercise
regimen. Subjects who consumed cigarettes and alcohol had decreasing trends in heart rate and
subjects who were sleep deprived had increasing trends in heart rate. Exercise has been known to
improve overall health by stabilizing the cardiovascular system and lower body fat. This
information is useful for individuals interested in lowering their potential risk factors which
usually result in cardiovascular disease. College students who wish to have a healthier future
would be wise to add regular consistent exercise to their routines in order to decrease their
chances of cardiovascular disease and to prevent the detrimental short/long term effects of sleep
deprivation, heavy alcohol intake, and cigarette smoking.
Introduction
The human heart is one of the most vital organs in the body. Many physiological
processes such as blood flow or nutrient exchange are dependent upon it and factors such as
stress or obesity can be damaging to its existence. There is good reason as to why so many
scientific studies have been focused on the correlations between the heart and lifestyle factors in
Figueroa |3
regard to cardiovascular disease. According to the US Census Bureau, in 2012 the population of
the United States was 313.9 million people (USDC, 2012). The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention estimated that 600,000 people in the US die of heart disease every year (NCCDP,
2014). These statistics demonstrate the degree of cardiovascular disease afflicting people in the
US. The prevention or treatment is vital to make our society healthier and to lower mortality
rates. Increases in sedentary lifestyles as well as ill balanced diets high in saturated fats,
cholesterol, and sodium have contributed to many clinical disorders such as obesity,
hypertension, osteoporosis, atherosclerosis, and diabetes (Seth and Sharma, 2013). High blood
pressure, high LDL (low density lipoprotein) cholesterol, and smoking make the list of top risk
factors that can lead to heart disease (NCCDP, 2014). The best treatment to avoid these diseases
is by lowering your risks. One form that has been thoroughly studied is the impact of exercise on
lowering the probabilities of suffering from these diseases throughout life. Individuals who
complete exercise training regularly along with a healthy daily routine have proven to have
balanced glucose levels, lower body percentage of adipose tissue, lower incidences of
cardiovascular diseases, and lower mortality rates (Pederson & Fischer, 2007). Metabolic and
physiological factors have proved to gain the most benefit from participating in physical activity.
Exercise has been shown to have a significant influence on regulating heart rate. The
normal heart rate is maintained by the parasympathetic nervous system. Increased
parasympathetic nervous system function is what keeps heart rate in balance via the vagus nerve
and has been associated with enhanced cardiac health (James et al, 2014). People with past
experience of exercising on a regular basis have heart rate values that quickly return to normal
after exercise with varying intensities (James et al, 2014). This demonstrates the importance of
routine exercise and how it can strengthen the heart, leading to a homeostatic heart rate. As every
other system in life, most work well with balance. If heart rate is on the opposite ends of the
spectrum as too high or too low this can cause major problems that can cause symptoms of
cardiovascular disease such as heart arrhythmias, bradycardia (low heart rate), and tachycardia
(high heart rate). The effects of exercise on heart rate have been shown to aid in restoring normal
rates of 60-100 beats per minute in individuals with a high percentage of body fat (Neves et al,
2011).
Figueroa |4
Blood pressure has also proved with scientific experiments to decrease with continuous
exercise (Eicher et al, 2010). Normal blood pressure for an adult is 120 systolic over 80 diastolic
and is highly correlated to diet. People can be predisposed to high blood pressure through
genetics, or through a diet with a high salt concentration, smoking, lack of physical activity,
older age, weight, and stress. If the individual’s body does not properly respond to the hormone
insulin than this can highly increase the risk for cardiovascular disease (Dobrosielski et al, 2012).
Malfunctions in glucose tolerance have been linked to diabetes, which is a risk factor
contributing to heart disease. A balanced blood pressure is essential because without it symptoms
such as hypertension (high blood pressure) or hypotension (low blood pressure) can result.
Obesity has become a widespread epidemic observed in overweight children and adults in
recent years. In 2010, it was estimated that there are approximately 300 million obese people all
over the world (Ahmad et al, 2010). It is defined as an overwhelming amount of fat in the body
compared to the normal amount for the individual’s height and age. BMI (body mass index), is a
figure used to calculate the relation between weight and height (NCCDP, 2012). Adults with a
BMI range of a 25 to 29.9 are defined as overweight and those with a BMI of 30 or increasing
outlines an adult to be obese (NCCDP, 2012). Lack of physical activity or overeating can result
in obesity, a risk factor for many disorders related to cardiovascular disease. There are many
alternatives to exercise such as diet programs that also show results of weight loss. Physical
exercise has shown to be more beneficial than these types of programs because they not only
promote weight loss but also avoid the muscle mass loss accompanied by some diet programs
(Shippey & Macedonia, 2003). Investigators looking into obesity treatments that will be covered
by well-known programs such as Medicare agree that the physical exercise is more successful
than diet when maintaining weight loss in the long term (Mann et al, 2007). Basic mathematical
principles will show that if the amount of fat you consume is higher than your daily level of
energy burning (exercise) than you will increase the levels of body fat stores. Likewise,
increasing the amount of energy burned compared to the amount of fat intake is significant in
decreasing body fat percentage (Goris & Westerterp, 2008).
While the consistent routine of a low to vigorous intensity exercise can improve
cardiovascular health by lowering body fat percentage and regulating heart rate, this can all be
thrown off by lifestyle factors characteristic of college students. Sleep deprivation, smoking, and
Figueroa |5
alcohol intake are stereotypical factors of college students that may contribute to a detriment in
terms of cardiovascular health. Individuals sleeping less than the recommended 7-8 hours per
day can be categorized as partial sleep deprivation or complete sleep deprivation (Mullington et
al, 2009). Symptoms of disorders leading to cardiovascular disease such as coronary artery
disease can be heightened by sleep deprivation (Mullington et al, 2009). Light or moderate
drinking has been categorized by less than 3 drinks per day and 3 or more drinks per day is
considered heavy drinking (Klatsky, 2009). These numbers encompass all types of alcoholic
drinks such as beer, hard liquor, and wine because on average they all have approximately the
same amount of alcohol in them (Klatsky, 2009). A high proportion of college students partake
in binge drinking activities which is why this lifestyle factor is relevant to the study (Dworkin,
2013). Higher occurrences of alcoholic cardiomyopathy (enlarged heart), irregular heart rate,
stroke, and heart failure are just among the few disorders caused by heavy drinking (Klatsky,
2009). Despite the addiction, respiratory problems, susceptibility to various cancers, as well as
discouraging public service announcements associated with smoking cigarettes, many people
worldwide still continue to become daily smokers. Increases in blood pressure and heart rate
were a result of ingesting nicotine through smoking compared to nonsmokers (Erblich et al,
2011).
In this study, three female college students will be exposed to moderate intensity exercise
over a course of two weeks. Heart rate, blood pressure, and body fat percentage will be measured
to provide data demonstrating cardiovascular health. Additional lifestyle factors thought to cause
physiological changes will be quantified daily including sleep deprivation, alcohol consumption,
and smoking cigarettes. Blood pressure expects to remain constant throughout the study since the
effect of exercise with the control of food diet will not be tested. Previous studies have shown
how regular exercise of low intensity can reduce body fat in overweight adolescents (Meredith,
1991). Factors such as number of hours slept, number of cigarettes smoked, and number of
alcoholic drinks daily will also be recorded as a way to observe if certain lifestyle factors typical
of college students could have any effect on the cardiovascular system. A baseline measurement
will be recorded before the subjects start in order to obtain a normal figure to analyze the
changes caused by exercise. Depending on the subject’s prior health, the baseline will be
different for each subject. College students are the ideal population for conducting this study
because it is at this age where this is a decline in physical activity compared to when they were
Figueroa |6
in high school (Pankratow et al, 2013). This is also the time where young people are more likely
to adopt habits that will be continued throughout life whether they are healthy or not. Based on
previous studies I hypothesize that after a strict exercise regimen, cardiac activity will stabilize to
the normal of 60-100 beats per minute compared to the first measurement and body fat
percentage will decrease in all subjects despite their fitness history. The data produced by this
study will provide information for the general population which will support or lessen if physical
exercise is beneficial on an individual’s overall health.
Methods
The experiment ran the course of three weeks. Subjects participated in an exercise
regimen consisting of cardio activity for forty five minutes a day, five days a week using the
elliptical machine. The elliptical was set at a moderate range, from levels 2-6. Strength training
was completed three days a week combined with the cardio exercise focusing on the areas of
arms, legs, or abdominal region. The strength training was completed with free weights. Arm
exercises consisted of three sets with ten repetitions, holding moderate weights of 5-10lbs. The
exercises included: a triceps exercise and a biceps exercise. Legs exercises were made up of
three sets with ten repetitions, holding moderate weights of 10-15lbs. The exercises incorporated:
front lunges, back lunges, and squats. Abdominals exercises were variable was left to the subject
to determine the exercises to complete. The only requirements were that it must be completed for
thirty minutes and be comprised of 150-175 crunches as well as one minute of planking.
The control in this experiment was the amount of water intake which each subject had to
consume a minimum of 64 oz. Other factors taken into consideration that were noted in a daily
log were calories consumed per day, and other significant lifestyle factors such as sleep,
smoking, caffeine, and alcohol consumption. The lifestyle factors were not controlled and the
subjects were told to continue with their normal habits since before they started the experiment.
Sleep was measured in hours, smoking by number of cigarettes, caffeine in approximate mg
consumed, and alcohol by number of standard drinks. The independent variable is the amount
and type of exercise that was performed. The dependent variables measured were heart rate,
blood pressure, and the percentage of body fat. Subjects independently recorded all of their data
Figueroa |7
onto an Excel sheet tracker provided to them. Subjects completed all exercise independently but
followed the same format.
Setting up the subject
Once the BIOPAC acquisition system (Model MP30 or MP35, BIOPAC Systems,
Inc., Goleta, CA) machine was running each subject sat on a flat, elevated surface sitting straight
up in a 90 degree angle with legs dangling freely for both activities. For the ECG activity, three
color coded electrodes were attached to the right forearm, right, and left leg according to the
BIOPAC instruction manual and were held in place for 5 minutes before calibration at the
beginning of recording for each subject. The pulse transducer was also wrapped around the
subject’s index finger snugly of the right hand ensuring that the sensor attaches to the bottom of
the fingertip. To measure the body fat percentage; age, height, weight, and gender were entered
into the Omron Fat Loss Monitor (Model HBF-306C, Omron Healthcare, Inc., Lake Forest, IL),
subject must maintain anatomical position, but holding the monitor anteriorly to the body
extending both arms in order to obtain accurate readings. In order to measure blood pressure, the
subject sat on a stool with legs/arms relaxed and the right arm lying on the table top. Once the
inflated cuff was wrapped firmly but not too tight around the right arm, the systolic and diastolic
blood pressure was obtained.
Pre and Post Exercise Recording
Heart activity during the first week was measured before completing the exercise
regimen in order to establish the baseline. Each week after completing the assigned exercise
routine the subject’s had heart rate, percentage body fat, and blood pressure were measured. In
order to measure the heart rate, the BIOPAC was utilized. To record the heart rate using the
ECG, simply hook the subject up the electrodes and begin recording. The Omron Fat Loss
Monitor was utilized to record percentage body fat and includes instructions. An aneriod
sphygmomanometer complete with an inflatable cuff, dial, bulb, air bulb and stethoscope
measured systolic and diastolic blood pressure on the right arm of all subjects. Consult clinical
guidelines and procedures to completing a blood pressure assessment if you have no previous
experience or training.
Figueroa |8
Data Analysis
The numbers recorded from the BIOPAC system for the heart activity included
the BPM for each subject after each week of exercise. The BPM was measured in beats per
minute. The ECG program recorded the electrical disturbances made by the actions of the heart
using the BIOPAC acquisition system software by measuring the amplitude of the wavelengths
over thirty seconds and multiplying that figure by two in order to get the heart rate. The body fat
was recorded as a percentage, and blood pressure was recorded as a ratio of systolic over
diastolic in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). In order to analyze the data, the mean, standard
deviation, standard error of the mean, and the 95% confidence interval were calculated using
Excel. The mean values of each figure were plotted in Excel using with standard error bars to
further observe the relationships between exercise and cardiac response.
Results and Discussion
In order to observe the effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system, college students
completed an exercise regimen over the course of two weeks of moderate intensity in which
heart rate and percentage body fat were measured using electrocardiography (ECG) in addition
to the Omron fat loss monitor. For the ECG measuring heart rate, percentage body fat, and blood
pressure a calibration was completed, and a baseline measurement was recorded before exercise
and once a week after exercise began. Exercise included moderate cardio activity for forty-five
minutes five times a week as well as strength training exercises three times a week with free
weights focusing on arms, abdominals, and legs. All subjects followed the same regimen and
also recorded lifestyle factors. Lifestyles representative of college students including factors such
as eating habits, sleeping schedules, substance intake (alcohol/smoking), and exercise showed
trends that influenced the overall health of an individual. The smoker and the drinker had
decreasing heart rate, the subject who experienced sleep deprivation, had an increase in their
heart rate, and all of the subjects showed a slight decrease in body fat percentage.
The results for measuring how exercise influences cardiac activity showed a stabilizing
trend in heart rate after exercise. Before exercise the mean heart rate for all subjects was 73.9
bpm, the first week after exercise was 79.3bpm, and after the second week of exercise it dropped
back down to 73.9 bpm. The fact that these results have minor differences can attribute to the
Figueroa |9
fact that exercise aids the parasympathetic nervous system in regulating heart rate. One factor
that could explain these results is that for the first week after exercise Subject 2 had a high heart
rate of 92bpm, also taking into account they had zero hours of sleep the night before. Hours of
sleep were logged daily and these averages were calculated for each week. These results are
conclusive with the previous studies on the effects of sleep deprivation at increasing heart rate.
The minute differences between heart rate and percent body fat can be explained by the
relatively short experimental period. Figure 1 shows that the mean of heart rates increased by
approximately nine percent (73.3 to 79.3 BPM) before exercise compared with the first week of
exercise. Figure 1 also shows how the heart rate after the second week of exercise dropped back
down to the baseline results. Cardiac activity demonstrated a stabilizing trend of nine percent
fluctuation between the beginning and end of the experiment. This data shows that consistent
physical activity makes the heart work harder and faster but will quickly go back down to normal
rates afterwards. Based on this data, prolonged periods of moderate physical activity can
strengthen the heart.
The results for measuring percent body fat of all subjects showed a decreasing trend as a
result of continuous moderate exercise. Before exercise the mean percent body fat for all subjects
was 25%, the first week after exercise was 24.5%, and the second week after exercise was
24.1%. Mean of body fat percentage decreased by approximately one percent (25-24.5 %) before
exercise and after one week of exercise. Standard error showed the 95% confidence interval after
the second week of exercise ranged from 19-28% showing a decreasing trend of percent body
fat. Although these differences are minute they are significant considering the short duration of
the experiment. These results also correlate with the increase of physical activity over calories
consumed as a way to lower percent body fat. Figure 2 shows the 95% confidence interval of the
standard error before exercise ranged from 21-29% and the range for after one week of exercise
was 20-28% indicating the decreasing trends of exercise on body fat percentage. Figure 2 also
shows after the second week of exercise the mean body fat percentage decreased by
approximately 0.02%. Based on this data it is conclusive that if individuals follow a moderate
intensity exercise plan they can decrease their percent body fat. With regards to the lifestyle
factors each subject slept an average of six hours per night (Table 1). The means for alcoholic
drinks and cigarettes are a result of two out of the three subjects not consuming in alcohol or
F i g u e r o a | 10
smoking cigarettes compared to the subject for whom those activities were the norm (Subject 14 drinks per day and Subject 3- 6 cigarettes per day) (Table 1).
In a previously completed study, physical activity has shown to have beneficial effects on
metabolism, insulin sensitivity, lowering the occurrence of cardiovascular disease, and mortality
rates (Golbidi and Laher, 2012). Exercise can boost the levels of antioxidants which can control
the reactive oxygen species that can be damaging to the human body. A minimum of 3o minutes
of moderate exercise 5-7 days out of the week can reduce the risk of cardiovascular related
disorders such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and stroke (Golbidi and Laher, 2012). Varying
intensities of exercise including low, moderate, and vigorous have been measured using an
ambulatory blood monitor (ABP) to immediately have a lowering influence on blood pressure
(Eicher et al, 2010). Also, the increase in heavy drinking can cause high blood pressure which is
one of the major factors in many cardiovascular diseases (Kähkönen et al, 2011). Physiological
factors that can influence blood pressure are the blockage of blood vessels that affect their ability
to carry blood throughout the body. Atherosclerosis is a common disorder where fat deposits get
stuck in the arteries or blood vessels and cause them to harden which not only raise blood
pressure but can cut off circulation to your brain resulting in a stroke. When the pathways of
blood are narrowed this can cause blood pressure to increase. The majority of heart disorders
stem from blood not being able to travel smoothly in arteries or blood vessels because of the
blockage of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances in the blood which can all be
decreased with regular exercise.
While diet pills have been recommended in those with a BMI higher than 30, they have
shown to cause other severe effects such as blood vessel damage that has even prompted the
recall of certain pharmaceutical medications such as fenfluramine (Shippey & Macedonia, 2003).
Negative effects have also been correlated to complex surgeries with goals of reducing weight
gain by making the stomach smaller by causing complications and the patient not being able to
properly absorb nutrients (Shippey & Macedonia, 2003). Sleeping less than the minimum
amount your body needs to properly function can wreak havoc on blood pressure (increases),
heart rate (decreases), and can also affect insulin uptake which can result in diabetes (Mullington
et al, 2009). Pulling all-nighters are popular for college students cramming last minute for an
exam or writing a lengthy research paper. Research shows that forcing your body to stay awake
F i g u e r o a | 11
puts a lot of stress on your body which in the short/long term can cause devastating effects
(Mullington et al, 2009). Although some studies have shown the beneficial effects of light
drinking, it is best to stay away from consuming alcohol until more conclusive research can be
done (Chiva-Blanch et al, 2013). According to one study it was shown that certain populations
that regularly had a wine or alcohol intake and diets high in saturated fats were less likely to be
afflicted with cardiovascular disease (Chiva-Blanch et al, 2013). In other clinical trials it was
shown that those who consumed alcoholic drinks such as red wine had lower chances of having
blood clots when compared with those who did not consume alcohol (Chiva-Blanch et al, 2013).
Smoking has been shown in one scientific study to cause more stress on the human body (Erblich
et al, 2011). This information is contrary to popular belief that smoking “relaxes” a person.
These stresses can result in imbalances in the way your heart pumps blood throughout your body
with time can lead to many disorders such as damaging of blood vessels or stress which both can
increase the risks for cardiovascular disease.
What makes this approach different is that the subjects involved in the study were not
changing any aspect of their lives during the course of the experiment except for the amount as
well as type of exercise performed. Hopefully this information will spark a change in the
dialogue concerning the potential benefits of physical exercise as well as the possible harmful
effects of not getting enough sleep, consuming heavy amounts of alcohol, and smoking
cigarettes. Ways to lower the risks of heart disease include avoiding cigarette smoking or
secondhand smoke, maintaining a healthy weight, eating a healthy well balanced diet, and
exercising regularly. If a person has already been diagnosed, then forms of treatment such as
pharmaceutical drugs, physical therapy, and surgeries will aid in combatting cardiovascular
disease. The combination of the main study with previously completed research all aid in
providing information on how exercise can be beneficial to cardiovascular health. The
suggestions for the repeats of this lab would be to have a larger sample size because of the
difficulty in calculating accurate standard error figures. It would also be beneficial to run the lab
over a course of several weeks instead of just two weeks in order to gain more data and a better
basis for comparison. In order to make a well-rounded study that investigated all the components
that may lower or increase percent body fat the individual’s diet should have been controlled and
there could have been different groups with “healthy” diets and “unhealthy” diets as a
comparison. There also could be subject groups who solely participated in a specific diet
F i g u e r o a | 12
program, exercise regime, or even undergo surgery such as bariatric surgery in order to measure
which treatment is best in order to maintain weight loss long term. Pitfalls of this experiment are
the fact that all subjects were not on the same diet which presented issues when analyzing if the
effects on heart rate and body fat were only influenced by exercise. Another potential concern
includes the accountability of the other members of the group when it came to completing the
exercise activities on their own. If one subject meets less than the minimum requirements for
exercise then this also could have impacted the results. Since there were many variables in this
experiment that were not controlled such as diet, lifestyle factors, genetics, and previous physical
fitness can all provide explanations for one metric increasing while another decreased vice a
versa. This is a hot topic which will require a lot of investigation in the near future especially
with the rise in childhood obesity and current statistics of cardiovascular disease in the US. In
conclusion, this laboratory experiment demonstrated correlations of exercise and cardiovascular
activity as well as decreasing body fat percentage.
F i g u e r o a | 13
100
90
BPM (beats per minute)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Before Exercise
1st week after Exercise
2nd week after Exercise
Heart rates during Exercise
Figure 1. Results of measuring cardiac activity provides evidence that heart rates showed a stabilizing trend
after two weeks of exercise. Measurements of cardiac activity of college students were recorded using BIOPAC
software in order to measure the amplitude of wavelengths. Subjects completed a calibration stage followed by the
first measurement in order to establish the baseline. Note that the wavelengths recorded represent electrical
disturbances induced by the actions of the heart and not the actions of the heart itself. The figures above represent
the heart rates during the course of a two week exercise regimen. The results show that the mean of heart rates
increased by approximately nine percent (73.3-79.3 BPM) before exercise compared with the first week of exercise.
Standard error showed the 95% confidence interval before exercise ranged from 64-82BPM and the range for after
the second week of exercise was the same indicating the increase in BPM after the first week of exercise and how it
dropped back down after the second week of exercise. Small sample size of three subjects can contribute to
inconclusive data.
F i g u e r o a | 14
30
25
Body Fat (%)
20
15
10
5
0
Before Exercise
1st week after Exercise
2nd week after Exercise
Body Fat % during Exercise
Figure 2. Results of measuring percent body fat over the course of an exercise regimen provides evidence that
body fat showed a decreasing trend after exercise for two weeks. Body fat measurements of college students
were recorded using the Omron fat loss monitor in order to measure the percentage of body fat for each subject.
Subjects completed a baseline measurement followed by a strict exercise regimen for two weeks including cardio
activity and strength training with free weights. The results show that the mean of body fat percentage decreased by
approximately one percent (25-24.5 %) before exercise and after one week of exercise. Standard error showed the
95% confidence interval before exercise ranged from 21-29% and the range for after one week of exercise was 2028% indicating the decreasing trends of exercise on body fat percentage. After the second week of exercise the mean
body fat percentage decreased by approximately 0.02%. Standard error showed the 95% confidence interval after the
second week of exercise ranged from 19-28% showing a decreasing trend of percent body fat. Short experiment
duration can attribute to subtle differences between percent body fat.
F i g u e r o a | 15
Table 1. Analysis of lifestyle factors between college students during the course of exercise for two weeks.
Before exercise, a baseline measurement was taken for each subject in the following areas. Each subject recorded
their average daily hours of sleep, amount of alcoholic drinks, and cigarettes smoked during the course of the
exercise regimen. All subjects slept for a mean of 6.24 hours per night. The standard error of the mean for hours of
sleep was 0.72. Subject 1 consumed 4 drinks of alcohol per day while Subjects 1 and 2 consumed zero. Subject 3
smoked 6 cigarettes per day while Subjects 1 and 2 smoked zero cigarettes. The standard error of the mean for
alcohol drinking was 1.3 and for cigarettes smoked was 2. Sleep deprivation (less than 7 hours of sleep), heavy
alcohol intake (more than 3 drinks per day), and smoking cigarettes all increase the potential vulnerability to
cardiovascular disease.
Average Daily Sleep
Average Alcoholic
Average Cigarettes
(hours)
Drinks (per day)
Smoked (per day)
Subject 1
6.24
4
0
Subject 2
5
0
0
Subject 3
7.5
0
6
F i g u e r o a | 16
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