What is Intelligence?
•
Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to learn
from experience, solve problems, and use our
knowledge to adapt to new situations.
– In research studies, intelligence is whatever
the intelligence test measures. This tends to
be “school smarts.”
What is Intelligence?
• Is intelligence a single overall ability or is it several
specific abilities
– To find out scientists use FACTOR ANALYSIS = a statistical
procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test.
• Used to identify different dimensions of performance that
underlie one’s total score.
Intelligence Test
 Verbal ability – excel at
verbal fluency, remembering
words, spelling,
comprehension, etc
Personality Test
 Extraversion – describe
themselves as liking
excitement, practical jokes,
and disliking quiet reading
Convergent Thinking: Ability to apply the
rules of logic and knowledge about world to
reduce the number of possible solutions to a
problem (EX: What can you use a newspaper
for? Gain info or news
General Intelligence
•
General Intelligence (g) = a single, overall
intelligence factor that underlies all mental
abilities and is therefore measured by every
task on an intelligence test
 Doing well in one area of a test predicted
that you will do well in another.
Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner disagreed with Spearman’s “g” and
proposed a theory of multiple intelligences.
According to this
definition, both Einstein
and Ruth intelligent
Speculates about 9th intelligence - existential intelligence
(the ability to think about the question of life, death and
existence)
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Sternberg simplifies Gardner and suggests
three intelligences rather than eight.
1.
2.
3.
Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence
tests (academic problem solving)
Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel
situations, generating novel ideas.
Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks,
where multiple solutions exist (e.g. street smarts).
Alice is a good student, always getting good grades until she reached graduate
school. Required to come up with original ideas, Alice began to fall behind. Barbara
is not such a good student, but she’s brimming over with ideas for research. Celia is
neither a good nor a creative student, but she’s street smart; she knows how to play
the game—how to get things done.
Sternberg summarizes: “So basically what I’ve said is there are different ways to be
smart but ultimately what you want to do is take the components (Alice’s
intelligence), apply them to your experience (Barbara), and use them to adapt to,
select, and shape your environment (Celia).
Emotional Intelligence
The ability to perceive, understand, and use
emotions. The test of emotional intelligence
measures overall emotional intelligence and its four
components.
Component
Perceive emotion
Understand emotion
Manage emotion
Use emotion
Description
Recognize emotions in faces,
music and stories
Predict emotions, how they
change and blend
Express emotions in different
situations
Utilize emotions to adapt or be
creative
Handout 10-9: Emotional
Intelligence Scale
• This scale is designed to
assess (1) the appraisal and
expression of emotion in
self and others, (2) the
regulation of emotion in
self and others, and (3) the
utilization of emotion in
solving problems.
• Scoring:
– Reverse the #s for
items 5, 28, and 33.
(1=5, 2=4, 3=3, 4=2,
5=1)
– Then add the
numbers in front of
all 33 items.
• Meaning of results:
– High scale scores are
associated with greater
optimism, less depression,
and less impulsivity
– Means of 135 for therapists,
120 for prisoners, 131 for
females, and 125 for males.
– Some studies show EQ to be
a greater predictor for future
success than IQ
Intelligence and Creativity
Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel
and valuable. It correlates somewhat with intelligence.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.
Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things in novel
ways.
Adventuresome Personality: A personality that seeks
new experiences rather than following the pack.
Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from
within.
A Creative Environment: A creative and supportive
environment allows creativity to bloom.
Divergent Thinking: Ability to generate many different but
plausible responses to a problem. (EX: What can you use a
newspaper for? Paper mache object, light a fire, pad a package)
Statistics
Use of mathematics to organize, summarize and interpret numerical data.
Statistical analysis is used to determine whether any relationships
or differences among the variables are significant, quantifies the exact
strength of the association.
Descriptive Statistics
Used to describe, organize
& summarize data to
make it more understandable
Statistical Significance
Central Tendency
Variability
Correlation
Used to interpret data
& draw conclusions. “What can we infer
about the pop from data gathered
from the sample?”
Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Central Tendency
(summarizes data set by providing a representative number)
Median
Score that falls in the center of a distribution of scores.
When there is an even number of scores in a data set, the
median is halfway between the two middle numbers.
Best indicator of central tendency when there is a skew.
The median is unaffected by extreme scores.
Mean ∑ X/N = X
Average of scores in a distribution. Even one
extreme score can change the mean radically,
possibly making it less representative of the
data. Most significant because additional
statistical manipulations can be performed on
it.
Mode
Most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Variability
Indicate the dispersion or spread in a data set. How much the scores
in a set of data vary from:
a. Each Other
b. the Mean
Tell you if the scores are very different from one another or if they
cluster around the mean.
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest score in a set of data.
Extreme scores can radically affect the range of a data set.
Standard Deviation
Reflects the average distance between every score and the mean. Tell
You how different the scores are from the
mean. Tells you whether scores are
packed together or dispersed.
Variability
Standard
Deviation
Inferential Statistics
• While descriptive statistics summarize a data set, we
often want to go beyond the data:
– Is the world at large like my sample?
– Are my descriptive statistics misleading?
• Inferential statistics give probability that the sample is
like the world at large.
– Allow psychologists to infer what the data mean.
– Assess how likely it is that group differences or
correlations would exist in the population rather than
occurring only due to variables associated with the
chosen sample.
Statistical Breakdown of Intelligence
• After researching about the intelligence of preschoolers, Philip was curious to
find out how intelligent he and his friends were. He and his friends took an
IQ test. The scores for the IQ test were normally distributed – the mean was
100 and the standard deviation was 15. Using this information, describe how
the scores are distributed.
–
Most scores (68%) are within 15 points of the mean (of 100).
–
The typical (average, normal) IQ score falls between 85 and 115
–
Mean, median, and mode are the same or very close
Normal Distribution
Statistical Breakdown of Intelligence
• The following are a list of four scores from the IQ test
Philip’s friends took: 136, 95, 91, 90. If we wanted to
know what the IQ of Philip’s friends is MOST like,
which would be the best indicator? Mean or Median?
Why?
– X = 103 Median = 93
– Answer = Median. The mean is affected by
extreme scores.
Sample Test Question
• For a language test with normally
distributed scores, the mean was 70 and
the standard deviation was 10.
– How are the scores distributed?
– Approximately what percentage of test takers
scored 60 and above?
Answer to Sample Question
• 68% of students scored between 60 and
80.
• 84%
Skewed Distribution
•
An asymmetrical distribution of scores, such as a curve
with a bump on the left and tail to the right or most
scores are bunched to the left or right of the mean
– The mean is the largest
– The mode or median are smaller than the mean
– The mean is a less useful measure; while the median is
more useful
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
90
475
70
Mode Median
One Family
Mean
Income per family in thousands of dollars
710
Statistical Breakdown of Intelligence
• Philip then wanted to find out if he and his friends were smarter than
his dad and his dad’s friends, so he gave the IQ test to his dad and
his friends. Compare the two groups of scores:
– Philip’s group: 104, 102, 95, 91, 90, 83, 72
– Philip’s dad’s group: 95, 93, 92, 91, 90, 89, 87
• What can we determine about the two groups? How are they
different? Similar?
– For each of the groups, the mean = 91
– However, the range for Philip’s group = 32; while the
range for dad’s group = 8. The standard deviation for
Philip’s group = ; while the range for dad’s group =
– The groups did not perform the same. The scores in
Philip’s group are much more spread out than in the
dad’s group. The scores for the dad’s group tend to
cluster closer to the mean
Statistical Breakdown of Intelligence
• The IQ test Philip used was recently re-normed. Why are IQ
tests periodically updated?
– Changes in knowledge require tests to be renormed
• People have gotten smarter (Flynn Effect)
• The numbers of questions answered accurately
has increased over the years
• Changes that affect IQ test scores of groups (e.g.
sociocultural or technological)
• Changes in educational practices or techniques
(that affect knowledge)
• Keep material culturally relevant
– Re-norm to maintain validity or reliability
Flynn Effect
In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risen steadily
by an average of 27 points.
The following environmental changes have contributed to the change:
1.
Rise of science:
a.
Taught us that classifying the world using the categories of science is just as
important as manipulating the world
b.
Freed logic from the concrete, allowing us to work on abstractions with no
concrete referents.
2.
Increasing educational opportunities
3.
Reduction in family size
4.
Improvements in infant nutrition
5.
Changing communication technologies
Principles of Test Construction
For a psychological test to be acceptable it must fulfill the
following three criteria:
1.
Standardization
 Standardizing a test involves pre-testing a
representative sample of people and forming a
normal distribution or bell curve (most scores fall
near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the
extremes) to establish a basis for meaningful
comparison.
2. Reliability = a test is reliable when it yields consistent
results
3. Validity = a test is valid when it measures what it is
designed to measure.
Reliability
To establish reliability researchers establish
different procedures:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves
(odds and evens) and assessing how consistent the scores are.
Alternate Forms Reliability: Using different forms of the test
to measure consistency between them.
Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to
measure consistency. A person’s score on a test at one point in
time should be similar to the score obtained by same person
on a similar test at a later point in time.
Inter-Scoring Reliability: One scorer’s rating should be similar
to another scorer’s rating
Validity
Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test
refers to what the test is supposed to measure or predict.
1.
Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test
measures a particular behavior or trait of
interest.
 driving test that samples driving tasks
2.
Predictive (Criterion-Related) Validity: Refers to the
success of a test in predicting a particular behavior or
trait it is designed to predict. Assessed by computing
the correlation between test scores and the criterion
behavior.
 behavior (such as college grades) that a test (such
as the SAT) is designed to predict
Types of Tests: Intelligence Tests
 Intelligence tests measure our general potential to solve problems,
think abstractly, and profit from experience.
 Assessing Intelligence: psychologists define intelligence testing as a
method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and
comparing them with others using numerical scores.
 History of Intelligence Testing
 Alfred Binet and his colleague Théodore Simon practiced
a more modern form of intelligence testing by
developing questions that would predict children’s
future progress in the Paris school system.
 In the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test for
American school children and named the test the
Stanford-Binet Test.
Types of Tests: Intelligence Tests
 Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
 the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca)
multiplied by 100
• IQ = ma/ca x 100
 EX: 8/10 x 100 = IQ of 80 for a ten year old with
a mental age of 8 (does as well as the average 8year-old).
 Problems with the IQ Formula
 It does not really work well on adults, why?
• If a 60 year old man does as well as an average 30
year old, then his IQ would be 50!!! That makes no
sense!
VS
Intelligence Test: WAIS
WAIS measures overall intelligence and 11 other
aspects related to intelligence that are designed to
assess clinical and educational problems.
Types of Tests: Aptitude vs. Achievement
 Aptitude = A test designed to
predict a person’s ability to
learn a new skill (future
performance.)
 College entrance exams
like ACT and SAT
 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/p
ages/frontline/teach/diversit
y/sat/sat.html
 Achievement = A test
designed to reflect what you
have already learned.
 Unit exams
 AP exam
The Dynamics of Intelligence

Mental Retardation
 a condition of limited mental
ability
 indicated by an intelligence score
below 70
 produces difficulty in adapting to
the demands of life
 varies from
mild to
profound

Down Syndrome
 retardation and associated
physical disorders caused by
an extra chromosome in one’s
genetic makeup
Is Intelligence Neurologically Measurable?
Recent Studies indicate some correlation (about
+.40) between brain size and intelligence. As brain
size decreases with age, scores on verbal
intelligence tests also decrease.
Nova How Smart Can We Get
http://video.pbs.org/video/2293519817
Gray matter concentration in people with high intelligence.
Dynamics of Intelligence
•
Condition in which people with serious mental handicaps, either from retardation
or major mental illness (early infantile autism or schizophrenia), have spectacular
islands of ability or brilliance.
– The syndrome is six times more common in males than females
– Occurs in a very narrow range of skills—calendar calculating, music (almost exclusively
limited to the piano), lightning calculations and mathematics, art, mechanical ability,
prodigious memory, or, rarely, unusual sensory discrimination abilities (smell or touch).
– Prodigious savant is the term reserved for those very rare persons whose special skill
or ability is so outstanding that it would be spectacular even if it were to occur in a nonhandicapped person.
• Researchers estimate that there are fewer than 50 prodigious savants presently
living who would meet this high threshold of special skill.
• Findings indicate that 50 percent of savants are autistic; the remaining 50 percent
suffer some other developmental disability, mental retardation, brain disease, or
injury.
– Although savants are aware of their talents, they cannot explain how they work. Alonzo
Clemons, a retarded Denver man whose animal sculptures fetch upwards of $45,000,
simply says God gave him his talent. Robert Black, a “calendar calculator” who can
figure out the day of the week on which your birthday will fall in 3314, explains, “I got a
good mind.” Bernard Rimland, director of the Institute for Child Behavior Research in
San Diego, notes that “sometimes savants give explanations that are meaningful only to
them— things like, ‘Because eleven.’ ”
Dynamics of Intelligence: Examples of Savants
•
•
•
•
George and his identical twin brother Charles can give you the day of the week
for any date over a span of 80,000 years. Ask them to identify the years in the
next two centuries in which Easter will fall on March 23 and they will give correct
answers with lightning speed. The twin brothers can describe the weather on
any day of their adult life. At the same time, they are unable to add or count to
30, and they cannot figure change from a $10 bill for a $6 purchase.
Kenneth can accurately cite the population of every U.S. city over 5000; the
distance from each city or town to the largest city in its state; the names, number
of rooms, and locations of 2000 leading hotels in the United States; and
statistics concerning 3000 mountains and rivers. Kenneth has a mental age of
11 years and a vocabulary of 58 words.
Upon hearing Tchaikovsky’s Piano Concerto No. 1 for the first time in his teen
years, Leslie played it back flawlessly and without hesitation. He can do the
same with any other piece of music, no matter how long or complex. Leslie is
severely mentally handicapped and blind, and he has cerebral palsy.
Ellen, also a musical genius, constructs complicated chords to accompany
music she hears on the radio. She was able to repeat the soundtrack of the
musical Evita after hearing it only once, transposing orchestra and chorus to her
piano by using complex, precise chords, including intense dissonances, to
reproduce mob and crowd noises. Like Leslie, Ellen is blind and has an
intelligence score of less than 50.
Savant Syndrome
Savant researchers have not been able to
explain these unique abilities, although
several theories have been advanced. For
example, Rimland notes that underlying all
savant abilities is a seemingly limitless
memory. The savant’s musical ability is not in
composition but rather in an uncanny ability to
play back, note for note, long passages heard
just once. Savant art is not remarkable for its
creativity but for its realism—exact copies of
animals or people or scenes done from
memory. Rimland theorizes, “The reason you
and I can’t multiply four digit numbers in our
heads is that we get distracted. Nine times
seven, carry the two—I wonder if the parking
meter’s about to run out—and four sevens
is— hey, how’d I get that stain on my shirt?” In
contrast, savants do not have distractions; the
brain is dedicated entirely to the task at hand.
Treffert notes that savants possess memory
that is “exceedingly deep, but very, very
narrow.”