Discourse – larger stretches of written or
spoken text
Key Definitions
discourse analysis – the study of how features of written/spoken texts illustrate
or enact their context and purpose
discourse structure – the way texts are organised into coherent wholes as well
as linguistic patterns within texts.
TASK: rearrange the text
on your worksheet so that
it is in the right order.
What textual features
helped you do this? What
generic conventions did
you use to help you?
While we often assume that texts,
particularly spoken texts, are
organic and are even quite
carelessly structured, discourse
analysis enables us to see the
structures which help text
producers negotiate meaning,
turns in dialogue etc.
What clues did you use to help you?
• Conventional structure of newspaper stories?
• Anaphoric constructions (phrases linking back
to previous ideas)?
• Increasing levels of narrative detail?
• Temporal adverbials?
• Other discourse markers (connectives that
signal the order of ideas in a text)?
Written discourse
structures
Discourse
structure
Key features
Examples
List/
Logical progression
instructions through stages, use
of imperative verbs
to instruct, guide
Recipes,
instructions,
guides, users’
manuals etc.
Problemsolution
Identify a problem
Advertisements
for products
Analysis
Break down key
ideas into
constituent parts
Evaluates/explores
Academic articles,
newspaper
editorials
Narrative
Details a series of
events, can be
chronological or
non-chronological
Novels, witness
accounts
So what? Why do we
need these
structures, even if
they are only
unconscious?
The process known
as foregrounding is
where features
which are
unexpected become
prominent.
Without
expectations,
unexpected features
cannot be
foregrounded.
Foregrounding is
useful for emphasis.
Discourse Analysis in monologues
(We’ll be looking at multi-speaker interactions next lesson)
Labov’s narrative categories
In 1972, the sociolinguist William Labov
suggested a structure for explaining how
speakers gave accounts of personal
experiences, as a result of fieldwork he
undertook in New York.
Labov’s narrative categories
Abstract (A)
Orientation (O)
Complicating Action
(CA)
Resolution (R)
An indication that the speaker wants a listener’s attenion and
is signalling the start of the narrative.
The ‘who’, ‘where’, ‘what’ and ‘why’. This sets the scene and
provides background information that the speaker sees as
important.
The main body of the narrative
The ending of the narrative that ties up loose ends and
provides closure
A signal that the narrative has ended
Coda (C)
Labov’s narrative categories
Transcript of an account of weekend activities. (.) = micropause
(1) longer pause – number indicates number of seconds’ pause
Abstract Well (.) at the weekend I went to get my hair done Orientation
at the salon (.) when I were there (.) I saw my friend
Complicating who gave me an invitation for her wedding (1) it
was lovely to see her (.) and a surprise to hear that
Action
she was getting married (.) which we will look
forward going to in a couple of weeks (1) after that I Complicating
Action
went to the shops and did some shopping with my
partner Craig (.) then we went home and had the
very boring task of putting it all away (.) not my
Resolution
favourite thing to do (.) anyway that’s all really.
Coda
Labov’s narrative categories
Transcript of an account of weekend activities. (.) = micropause
(1) longer pause – number indicates number of seconds’ pause
Well (.) at the weekend I went to get my hair done at
the salon (.) when I were there (.) I saw my friend
who gave me an invitation for her wedding (1) it was
lovely to see her (.) and a surprise to hear that she
was getting married (.) which we will look forward
going to in a couple of weeks (1) after that I went to
the shops and did some shopping with my partner
Craig (.) then we went home and had the very boring
task of putting it all away (.) not my favourite thing
to do (.) anyway that’s all really.
Of the two examples
of evaluation here,
which is internal and
which is external?
In addition, Labov suggested that speakers, at any point, could include evaluation –
additions to the narrative that the speaker felt were worth mentioning.
Internal evaluations are expressions of attitude towards the events in the narrative that
occur in the same frame as the main action.
External evaluations are expressions of attitude where the speaker ‘stands back’ from the
main action.
Labov’s narrative categories
In addition, Labov suggested that speakers, at any point, could include evaluation –
additions to the narrative that the speaker felt were worth mentioning.
Internal evaluations are expressions of attitude towards the events in the narrative that
occur in the same frame as the main action.
External evaluations are expressions of attitude where the speaker ‘stands back’ from the
main action.
Other types of evaluation include:
Intensifying evaluation – contributing vividness via gestures, repetitions or dramatic sounds
Fred ran into a wall – ouch!
Explicative evaluation – providing reasons for narrative events
Fred annoyed his mum, because he was always noisy.
Your turn: can you identify the
narrative categories in this discourse?
Extension: What other language features are present?
Goodwin’s story structure
• Many narratives, of course, are not told by a
single speaker to an audience who do not
participate in anyway.
• The linguist Charles Goodwin (1984)
proposed an alternative model for analysing
narratives that highlights the interactive
natures of story telling.
Goodwin’s story structure
Story preface
A signal that a speaker wants to tell a story and an invitation for
others to show interest
Story solicit
A response from someone else to that they want to listen to the
story
Preliminary to the
story
Background information to the story in the form of ‘who’,
‘where’, ‘what’ and ‘why’
Story action
The main body of the narrative
Story climax
The conclusion of the narrative
Story appreciation
Signals from the audience that communicate their response to
the narrative. This might be at several different points during
the story and could consist of questions, agreements and
laughter or other emotions,
Goodwin’s story structure
TASK: can you apply this to the dialogue below?
A:
well I’ve often found Rob rude
B:
why (.) what has he done to you
A:
do you (.) want (.) really want to know
B:
yes tell me
A:
OK (.) well (.) I had this new sofa and he just came in
B:
yeah
A:
put his feet all over it (.) you know we had only just got it
B:
right
A:
I told him (.) get your feet off (.) and he laughed
B:
how rude
A:
yeah (.) loser
B:
haha [laughs]
Plenary
As easy as 1-2-3...
1. Discourse structure is
how longer stretches of
text are organised.
2. We use Labov’s narrative
categories to analyse
single-speaker narratives.
3. Goodwin’s story structure
is an alternative to
Labov’s.
Homework
• Continue with your formal assignment.