INFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
Kate Reid
1
December 8, 2013
The Information Behavior of Middle School Students in an Academic Context
Introduction
In the course of their academic lives, middle school students seek information, learn new
facts and ideas, and apply their new knowledge. In order for librarians and libraries to serve
middle school students in the best possible manner, a clear and in-depth understanding of the
information behavior of middle school students is needed. Why do they seek information?
What kind of sources and media do they prefer? How do they formulate their queries? How do
they determine the relevance of the information they find? What role does the student’s prior
knowledge play in his or her information-seeking behavior? By examining these questions and
searching for answers, this paper will determine implications for libraries and information
professionals. As well, the complex information behavior of middle school students in academic
contexts will be explored.
The exact grades comprising middle school vary depending on where one lives and attends
school. For this paper, middle school refers to grades five through eight and ages nine through
fourteen. During these years, students’ information behavior has been broadly categorized as:
trying to find the ‘right’ answer as quickly as possible with the least amount of effort, aiming to
ascertain what the teacher wants, and learning about an interesting topic (Hultgren & Limberg,
2003). The impetus for middle school children to seek information frequently stems from a
teacher’s directive.
Research for middle school students requires that they be able to read multiple documents
and then be able to: identify the information source, compare information from different
sources, and ultimately integrate all this information (Sullivan, 2011). The ubiquity of the
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Internet demands that students be able to search effectively both in books and online. This paper
will examine the information behavior of middle school students using technology as well as
traditional print sources. Large and Beheshti (2000) found that students fall under the following
categories, “technophiles, traditionalists, or pragmatists” (p. 1069).
Todd (1998) delineated three dimensions and the processes associated with them that are
essential to developing critical literacies. First, students need to connect with the world of
information. By connecting with information, youngsters will question, define, search, and
locate information. Second, students must interact with information. Interacting entails further
questioning on the part of the student who will also challenge, evaluate, filter, analyze, interpret,
synthesize, and critique the information. Finally, the student should utilize information by a
myriad of processes. He or she may find help, get directions, solve needs, move on, implement
an action, or construct a solution. Kuhlthau, Maniotes, and Caspari (2007) described the inquiry
process as preceding the writing process. Through their inquiries, students discover information
and then write about it. However, students often mistakenly believe that the goal of their inquiry
is to locate sources, collect information, and ultimately make presentations. Students and their
instructors all too often bypass real exploration and formulation of focused ideas. Kuhlthau et al.
(2007) found that “the most important task of the inquiry process is to explore the information
and ideas within sources and to form new understanding from these ideas” (p. 22).
Literature Review
The cognitive perspective provides a solid framework upon which to construct an
understanding of middle school students’ information behavior. Gross (1999) expounded on the
helpfulness of Taylor’s model of formulating a question. Taylor’s model allows for a process
that evolves as the seeker formulates his or her question. Just by verbalizing the question, the
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student’s question may change. The question may mutate even further when the student tries
either to put the question into search terms or vocabulary words suitable to the system he or she
chooses to use. The cognitive school additionally allows for the student to seek, find and use
new information such that their prior knowledge of a topic is modified (Cole et al., 2013).
As Bilal (2005) pointed out, the cognitive viewpoint focuses on the seeker’s whole
experience by examining their actions, thoughts, and feelings. As she wisely argued, Belkin’s
ASK (anomalous states of knowledge) assumes that there is a gap in the seeker’s knowledge
structure. The student seeks and acquires information to overcome this gap to the point that his
or her state of knowledge undergoes change. In elaborating on Belkin’s ASK, Shenton and
Dixon (2005) described a student who confronted a problem, such as a homework assignment,
and realized that his or her existing knowledge was not enough to solve the problem. According
to Belkin, the seeker, who in our case is a middle school student, experiences an anomaly that
might be a gap, a lack, incoherence, or uncertainty. In the process of seeking information to
solve the problem, the student may struggle at first to express exactly the information that he or
she needs. During the student’s search, “the information gathered causes the individual’s state of
knowledge to change, and increasingly, a clearer grasp of what is required is developed”
(Shenton & Dixon, 2005, p. 22).
The constructivist perspective examines the student in context. Much of the most recent
research on the information-seeking behavior of youths has focused on the importance of
studying students in context. Crow in 2011 reported on intrinsically motivated fifth graders. She
discovered that the students in her research pool did not come from advantaged family
backgrounds, but they did all have anchor relationships. That is, each of these fifth graders had
people, family members or other adults, who supported their natural interests and their
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information seeking. Children constantly learn and construct meaning by interacting with the
people around them. Kuhlthau et al. (2007) cogently explained the social constructive
experience of students who continuously learn by interacting with their parents, siblings,
teachers, and fellow students.
A move from concrete to abstract thinking takes place during the middle school years.
Students explore ideas from myriad sources and then need to integrate this new information with
what they already know. They learn how to develop a focus while seeking information.
Ultimately, they share and apply the assimilated information (Kuhlthau et al., 2007). They often
begin middle school by thinking in concrete terms and looking for highly specific information.
Shenton and Dixon (2005) reported of one nine year old, Ian, who had a quick reference
question, “‘how many stars are there in the galaxy?’” (p. 23).
As students move further into their middle school education, they need to develop critical
thinking skills and be able to think more in the abstract (Cole et al., 2013). The current mandate
of many educators is for middle school students to formulate research questions that have
multiple explanations and about which the student will ultimately form a reasoned opinion
(Enochsson, 2005). In the knowledge society in which they live, students need to develop higher
order thinking. Simple fact-finding skills are not enough. Bowler, Large, and Rejskind (2001)
outlined Bloom’s educational objectives in the cognitive realm. The following, ranked from
lowest to highest, delineates the cognitive skills students need to develop:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Knowledge – the ability to identify, recall and recognize.
Comprehension – the ability to explain, restate, demonstrate.
Application – the ability to apply, generalize, organize, and restructure knowledge.
Analysis – the ability to categorize, distinguish, deduce, compare.
Synthesis – the ability to produce, develop, write or tell
Evaluation – the ability to justify, judge, argue and assess (p. 205).
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During middle school, students learn to use information critically, to gain deep understandings of
the information they discover, and to produce knowledge creatively. To accomplish these skills
requires the last three of Bloom’s educational objectives. Analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
demand higher order thinking by the student.
Active learning. In order for the student to be able to question, evaluate, and synthesize
information, he or she must be actively engaged with it (Bowler et al., 2001). One fifth grader in
Crow’s (2011) study perfectly expressed the importance of active engagement, “’I like learning,
but I mean it gets kind of boring sometimes, but researching stuff is like the best, doing projects.
Holy cow, that’s really fun’” (p. 13). This boy did not even think of information seeking as
learning, it was just something fun and interesting to do. Throughout the literature on
information-seeking behavior in middle school, students echoed his thoughts. They constantly
mention the importance of interest in a topic as integral to making the research process easier
(Enochsson, 2005). Sullivan et al. (2011) pointed out that educators have increasingly
recognized the importance of active inquiry and interaction with a variety of texts and sources.
The Information Search Process (ISP)
Kuhlthau’s (1991) model of the information search process (ISP) forms the ideal
cornerstone for studying middle school students’ information-seeking behavior in academic
contexts. This model, see Table 1, represents the seeker’s physical actions, affective feelings,
and cognitive thoughts. In this model, the student actively engages in a sense-making process
and forms meaning from information. The student’s information search is a constructive process
that involves his or her thoughts, actions, and feelings. The student extends his or her knowledge
of a topic through “a series of encounters with information within a space of time rather than a
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single reference incident” (Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 361). The student assimilates information from
multiple sources with what he or she already knows. Ultimately, the ISP ends with the student
gaining a new understanding to be presented to others. Kuhlthau, Maniotes, and Caspari (2007)
developed the Guided Inquiry approach to accompany the ISP. In Guided Inquiry, the student,
with intervention from librarians and teachers, actively engages with sources, asks questions,
challenges information, explores, gains knowledge, and reaches solutions.
TABLE 1. Information Search Process (ISP)
(Kuhlthau, 1991, p. 367)
Two aspects central to Kuhlthau’s ISP are the formulation of a focus and the role of affect.
In the initial middle school years, the focus is frequently assigned when the teacher gives a
narrow research topic such as the 2012 U.S. men’s Olympic gymnastics team. However, as
students progress through middle school, they need to form foci themselves as they research
more general subjects. If students fail to form a focus or develop a critical attitude, they may
merely gather a bunch of unrelated facts (Kuhlthau et al., 2007). Bowler et al. (2001)
emphasized that for students to be actively engaged in information seeking they must be
emotionally as well as intellectually involved in the process. Bilal (2005) further argued that
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affect gives directionality to learning that subsequently impacts actions. The holistic approach of
the ISP involves the whole child; “students’ feelings have as great an impact on how they pursue
their inquiry as their thoughts and their actions” (Kuhlthau et al, 2007, p. 140).
Stage 1 – Initiation. In the first stage of the ISP, the student discovers a gap in their
knowledge. This gap frequently is in the form of a research assignment for a paper or a
presentation. The student recognizes that they lack knowledge to complete their schoolwork.
They contemplate the problem, work to understand what they need to do, and try to relate the
problem to any prior knowledge they may have. They begin to seek background information.
Feelings of uncertainty and anxiety are common at this initial stage (Kuhlthau, 1991). The
assignment itself will have an impact on the student’s information seeking. If the assigned topic
is too vague, especially for younger middle school students, then finding a focus will be difficult
and uneasy feelings will abound. As well, students need to be instructed that they will have
plenty of time in which to complete their search (Hultgren & Limberg, 2003).
Stage 2 – Selection. Students choose a topic to research. After they have selected their
topic, they feel optimistic about the project and are ready to begin researching. However, the
process of selecting the topic is not an easy one. Students make their selection based on the
following criteria: personal interest, available information, the instructor’s requirements, and the
amount of time they are given to work on the project (Kuhlthau, 1991). In an article on gifted
seventh graders, Thompson and Seward (2012) recounted that these students were not allowed to
choose a topic about which they had too much prior knowledge. They had to determine that they
would have access to sufficient resources to support their chosen topic of study. During this step
of topic selection, “many students soon discover that this initial stage is the most difficult portion
of the assignment” (Thompson & Seward, 2012, p. 69). In their preliminary searching, students
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consult teachers, librarians, and peers. They skim general reference sources to identify other
possible topics.
At this early stage in the ISP, general reference books such as encyclopedias provide
students with excellent overviews. In a study of ten fifth-grade students doing projects on sports
figures, Hirsh (1999) discovered that at the beginning of the research process the students
focused on seeking basic biographical facts. Kuhlthau et al. (2007) expounded that books and
magazines are helpful to students for more detailed information and differing viewpoints. The
sequence of beginning with general reference materials before moving on to books and
magazines, “introduces students to the layers of information that build knowledge” (Kuhlthau et
al., 2007, p. 65). Librarians have noted that gifted and talented sixth graders can become bogged
down in the stacks when they skip the step of consulting the reference section (Kopfer, Olwell, &
Hudock, 2005).
Stage 3 – Exploration. During this stage of the ISP, students search for information on
their topic. Their thoughts become sufficiently well informed that they begin to formulate a
focus. Nevertheless, many students find it difficult to communicate to the system, be it a search
engine or a librarian, what information they seek. They continue to find information, to read
about their topic, and to relate the newly discovered information with what they already know.
Feelings of confusion, frustration, doubt, and discouragement are common (Kuhlthau, 1991).
A student naturally tends to believe that he or she is the only one to experience this anxiety. It is
a relief for the student to discover that others feel this same uncertainty (Kuhlthau et al., 2007).
Not surprisingly, information needs sometimes shift during the ISP. Shenton and Dixon
(2005) found that most of the middle school students in their research group remained focused
on their original topic. However, students at times needed to redefine their topics. One eleven
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9
year old had to change her topic from focusing on the veterinarians to animals in general because
she originally held misconceptions of what information was available. Kirsty, aged thirteen,
similarly broadened her research from poltergeists to the broader concept of ghosts. Poor
research skills might lead students to change their topics. In another project, Kirsty more
drastically changed her topic from the moon to rockets and other space vehicles because she
located information more readily on rockets. These types of needs, “where what is actually
desired is reshaped by youngsters in accordance with their perception of what is available, may
be understood as a form of the ‘compromised need’ described by Taylor” (Shenton & Dixon,
2005, p. 22-23).
Stage 4 – Formulation. Many middle school students face a barrier between stages 3 and
4 of the ISP. They have difficulty transitioning from their topic and the information they have
learned to generating new knowledge and building a thesis or critical viewpoint (Cole et al.,
2013). Stage 4 involves the students forming a focus. They formulate a personal perspective on
the topic from the information they have located and absorbed. Feelings of anxiety tend to
subside while a sense of confidence increases (Kuhlthau, 1991). Making this step demands hard
work from the middle school student. In their study of sixth graders, Kopfer et al. observed that
students needed direction in thinking about their search as an iterative process. Illustrating
Kuhlthau’s zone of intervention,* they pointed out that children at this age need guidance
creating and refining their questions (Kopfer et al., 2005). Students in Enochsson’s (2005) study
reported how easy it was for them just to ‘surf around’ if they lacked a focus. Middle school
students need specific goals and perspectives.
*
For more information on the zone of intervention, see page 11 of this paper.
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Stage 5 – Collection. At the collection stage, the information seeker interacts effectively
and efficiently with the system. The student gathers information directly related to their nowfocused topic. In an iterative process, they define and support their perspective. Students should
be taking detailed notes from the sources on their focused subject, as they should have all of the
general background information that they need. Kuhlthau surmised that the information seeker’s
confidence rises and their anxiety decreases during this gathering step (Kuhlthau, 1991). For
example, by the third and fourth research sessions of sixth grade students doing a research
project, the children were able to identify useful information and stay focused on their
assignment. The students evaluated the information as they located it and decided whether or not
to take notes from the found source. Students at this stage assess the utility of the information
collected and develop a personal meaning for the information. In order to evaluate productively,
students need the skills to determine the “accuracy, validity, relevance, completeness and
impartiality of information” (Bowler et al., 2001, p. 212). Hirsh (1999) found that as fifth
graders neared the end of a research project, their reliance on topicality as a criterion for
relevance decreased. Instead, students concentrated on interesting and new information.
Stage 6 – Presentation. At the end of the ISP, students complete their information seeking
and prepare their materials for some sort of presentation, often a written paper or oral report.
Ideally, they concentrate on ending the search by applying personal meaning to the information
they have found, integrated, and analyzed. As they organize their notes and finalize their
presentations, students either feel relief and satisfaction if all has gone well, or they are
disappointed if they have not had success in their ISP (Kuhlthau, 1991). Students terminate their
information seeking usually for two reasons: they either find what they need, or the submission
date itself ends the ISP. In creatively using their research, students communicate an idea
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effectively and appropriately. The convincing presentation demonstrates a cohesive synthesis of
their discoveries. The hope is that students will make decisions about how to create a product
that reflects their own thinking and is not just “the regurgitation of someone else’s thoughts”
(Bowler et al., 2001, p. 217).
Zone of Intervention. A critical implication of the ISP for the librarian is Kuhlthau’s
notion of the zone of intervention. Throughout the search process, times occur when the student
needs appropriate guidance. It may mean, for example, at the initiation stage that middle school
students need instruction on the layout of the library, on how to perform effective Internet
searches, or how to use a book’s index successfully. With Guided Inquiry, students are provided
assistance when they reach a point when they can no longer seek information by themselves or
they can only do so with significant difficulty. In order to refrain from offering unnecessary
advice, the librarian must develop the skill to recognize when intervention will be beneficial and
when it will be a hindrance (Kuhlthau et al., 2007).
The Imposed Query
Although students need guidance, the vast majority of the literature on their information
behavior demonstrates that they engage more actively with their research if they choose their
own topic within a curriculum area (Bilal, 2005; Cole et al., 2013; Crow, 2011; Kuhlthau et al.,
2007). Students routinely receive questions and assignments from their teachers. Gross (1999)
developed the Imposed Query Model, see Figure 1, from professional observation. In this
model, information seeking is either imposed (e.g. an assignment from a teacher) or is selfgenerated. Imposed queries occur in context, examples of which include a science experiment, a
project, a reading assignment, or a research paper. For imposed queries, middle school students
frequently use the library per the teacher’s directions.
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Stage 1 – Initiated. At this beginning stage, the teacher communicates to the student a
question or assignment for the student to complete. The teacher may indicate where applicable
information is located or in what form the assignment should be completed (Gross, 1999). The
question itself will guide students’ information seeking. ‘Why’ questions will demand more
analytical skills from the students; whereas, ‘what’ and ‘how’ questions will lead the students to
more fact-based answers. In one study, sixth graders referred back to their teacher’s initial
questions throughout their research: “The questions were like a thread woven throughout the
project. The final product, the poster, was a direct reflection of the information need created by
the questions” (Bowler et al., 218). Fifth graders in another study sought information on a
concrete topic, a sports figure. Hirsh (1999) deemed this to be fitting because they were still in
“Piaget’s concrete-operational stage of development” and thought in concrete terms. Even
though, it was an imposed query, it was one of great interest to the children who were excited to
begin the project.
Stage 2 – Transferred. Communication is a critical aspect of the Imposed Query model.
In order to understand the actions he or she needs to take, the student must understand the query.
Otherwise, the student may not be able to complete successfully the assignment or may not ever
INFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
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develop a focus. Interestingly, the personalities and interests of the imposer and the agent come
into play at this stage. Gross (1999) explained that “perceptions of ownership for imposed
queries varied, even among students transacting identical questions, that is, the same assignment
from the same teacher ” (p. 502).
Stage 3 – Interpreted. The student hopefully internalizes the query at this stage. The
more a student takes ownership of the project, the more positive will be their informationseeking experience. For students who do not grasp what is intended, then the arrow back to the
imposer illustrates that they return to the teacher/imposer for clarification (Gross, 1999).
Stage 4 – Negotiated. Communication again merits great importance. At this stage, the
imposer/teacher, the intermediary/librarian, and the agent/student all interact and benefit if they
understand each other. The feelings and beliefs each actor has for the other come into play. How
approachable is the librarian? What is the relationship like between the librarian and teacher?
How comfortable is the student asking questions? These factors will impact how much the
intermediary understands the student’s search and what kinds of sources the student will be
directed to use (Gross, 1999). As Hultgren and Limberg (2003) lucidly illustrated, “there is a
greater risk of misunderstanding, the pupils do not really know what they are looking for and
librarians are faced with interpreting teachers’ instructions through pupils’ often confused
understanding of the research problem” (p. 3).
Stage 5 – Processed. Ideally, students now have even more ownership of the query. They
continue to research. Prior interaction with teachers and librarians provides them with clear
understandings of how to locate information and what kinds of information to seek. As students
become more and more familiar with their topics, they select material they find to be relevant
and interesting (Hirsh, 1999).
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Stage 6 – Evaluated. The student completes the assignment and submits it to the teacher
for the teacher to evaluate. Part of the evaluation entails the teacher’s response to the student’s
understanding of the query initially imposed by the teacher. Gross (1999) stressed that the query
is in danger of changing during every stage of the process. She additionally found that children
face a number of hindrances during the information seeking process. These hindrances include
limited reading abilities, poor search strategies, and weak critical analysis skills.
Hultgren and Limberg (2003) addressed some of the negative consequences of imposed
queries.† If teachers assign poorly designed research projects, then the students’ interest may or
may not be engaged. This in turn leads pupils to accept uncritically the first information sources
they discover. If they do not locate relevant sources, they may too readily change their focus to
adapt to the information that they do find. Finally, plagiarism may result if the students are
given a deadline that does not allow enough time for information seeking. Students require
support and structure from librarians and teachers to deepen their understanding of a topic. A
final consequence of the imposed query is that students skim quickly for specific facts instead of
reading texts deeply.
Sources Consulted by Middle School Students.
Middle school students consult myriad sources in the course of their academic lives. Their
main information sources are their own prior knowledge, school libraries, printed texts
(including reference works, books, magazines, journals, and textbooks), teachers, their peers, and
sources found on the Internet. All of the fifth graders interviewed in Crow’s 2011 study
indicated that they used at a minimum two types of media; all but one reporting using three
media types. Crow found as well that students initiated their searching with the media that was
†
Hultgren and Limberg’s (2003) study involved a wide range of ages and grades. However,
their conclusions apply to middle school students.
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most accessible to them and with which they had the most experience. After developing
knowledge from one source, they then expanded their seeking to include other sources and media
types.
Books. Despite the pervasiveness of the Internet, middle school students still use
traditional sources for much of their information seeking. Crow wrote in 2011, “studies have
shown that children are not as successful nor as motivated by computer use as the conventional
wisdom would suggest” (p. 27). The middle school students in her research group did not say
that they disliked or lacked experience using computers; rather they simply chose other media
sources. All but one of these fifth graders began their research with books or other printed media
and later used the Internet for supplemental information. In an earlier study, Bowler et al. (2001)
reported of one child who thought searching on the Web took too long. He preferred the
straightforward presentation of information in books. As the boy articulated, “using books is
‘not that hard, because you just have to look in alphabetical order’” (p. 210).
Other studies reached similar conclusions, students appreciate the organizational structure
of books, including chapter outlines, indexes, and the alphabetical order of encyclopedias (Large
& Beheshti, 2000). However, middle school students do not always know how to use indexes
effectively. Nor do they innately know how to think of alternative search terms when looking in
an index or a library catalogue. They frequently conclude that information on a topic does not
exist if they cannot locate it (Kuhlthau et al., 2007). Hirsh (1999) explained that, because fifth
graders are in Piaget’s concrete-operational stage, they seek results that exactly match their topic.
For example, they preferred books whose titles explicitly included their topic.
Peers. Middle school students find their peers to be approachable sources of knowledge
and of help. Hirsh (1999) viewed the fifth graders who he studied as being supportive of each
INFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
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other. They frequently shared books, pictures, ideas, and other information. In another study of
sixth graders working on computers, the children only asked for on-line help one time in
seventy-eight sessions. They much preferred to seek assistance from knowledgeable peers
(Large & Beheshti, 2000).
Source Selection. As mentioned previously, many middle school students select sources
based on its availability. They also consider other relevancy factors. They look for new and
novel information. By far the most important factor is topicality, the information must relate
directly to their topic. In Hirsh’s (1999) study, middle school students preparing for an oral
presentation exhibited concern that the information would be of interest to their peers. In all of
the articles examined for this paper, students demonstrated scant concern for up-to-date
information.
Prior/Implicit Knowledge. Middle school students build deep understanding by
synthesizing past experiences and prior knowledge with new information – a point stressed by
constructivist theory (Kuhlthau et al., 2007). At the early step of making proposals, Cole et al.
(2013) found that students with implicit knowledge received high marks. Background
experience of a subject usually serves as a predictor of student success on a project. Students use
what they already know about a topic, incorporate this knowledge with new information, and
develop a critical point of view on their topic. Students may be unaware that they have this
knowledge, for example they may unwittingly employ already known, useful terminology when
searching tables of content and indexes (Hultgren, 2003). Research has established that middle
school students who have higher prior knowledge are better able to navigate text and process
ideas. In hypertext environments, they “have been found to be more proficient with navigating
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17
to content directly related to the learning task and to conduct deeper investigations into the
content and affordances of the hypertext system” (Sullivan, 2011, p. 393).
Electronic Information Behavior of Middle School Students.
As early as 2005, Large claimed that the Web was available at “almost every school
throughout North America” (p. 366). The research literature examined for this paper paints a
complex picture of middle school children’s use of technology in their academic information
seeking. Students expressed frustration, appreciation, sophistication, and ambivalence when
consulting online sources. Large and Beheshti (2000) made the cogent point that the Internet is
not an information source in and of itself; rather, the Internet is a “gateway to millions of sources
from millions of information providers, most of which are not intended specifically for children,
some of which might be considered very unsuitable for them, and a tiny part of which may be
highly relevant for an assigned class project” (p. 1069).
Frustrations. Middle school students’ frustrations with using the Internet for assignments
may be categorized as follows: difficulty formulating appropriate search terms, being directed to
the same link repeatedly, misleading links, information overload, unfamiliarity with different
search engines, and not easily finding relevant information. Bowler et al. (2001) emphasized the
need for children to gain technical literacy for effective information seeking in the unstructured
Internet environment. This holds true in 2013. In early exploratory search sessions, young users
tend to take few notes, lack a strategic search plan, and skip over sites that directly answer their
queries. They exhibit engagement but simultaneously speed through multiple links thereby
missing relevant information (Hultgren, 2003).
Although middle school students are frequently admonished to take detailed notes and to
keep track of their sources, this task is not an easy one for them. Whether they are browsing
INFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
18
online or in books, they tend to avoid keeping accurate logs of sources, which leads to later
problems with citation or returning to an information source. As well, they struggle in
determining what to write down. Students “frequently either make the mistakes of attempting to
write down everything or of taking sparse notations that are not useful when they refer back to
them” (Kuhlthau et al., 2007, p. 89).
Search Terms. Middle school students regularly encounter roadblocks at the beginning of
their search processes because they have difficulty formulating appropriate terms for search
engines. They moreover have trouble revising their strategies (Large, 2005). However, search
engines have become more user-friendly since many of the articles consulted for this paper were
written. Nevertheless, Boolean search terms remain an enigma to most middle school students.
In 2005, Enochsson reported pupils using quotation marks, subtraction and addition symbols,
capitalized versus uncapitalized letters, and experimenting with the space bar. A couple of studies
found that with both experienced and inexperienced online searchers, students preferred using
broad search terms, made spelling mistakes, and did not comprehend how to create focused
searches (Bowler et al., 2001; Hirsh, 1999). Enochsson (2005) established that children
themselves recognized the importance of reading and language skills when information seeking.‡
Sullivan (2011) confirmed that middle school students with higher comprehension abilities used
navigation strategies more and more effectively than did those who had weaker comprehension
skills.
Online Searches. Not only do they often have difficulty formulating their searches, but
also middle school students often repeat the same search over and over again. They rarely
bookmark or keep records of sites which can lead to spending a good deal of time trying to
‡
Enochsson (2005) created a non-linear model of children’s Web searching skills. Please see the
appendix.
INFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
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relocate a useful website. Hirsh’s (1999) fifth grade students frequently could not reconstruct
their prior searches. Bowler et al. (2001) similarly found that sixth graders unwittingly looped
back to previously visited sites, even if they selected what appeared to be a new link.
Bilal’s 2005 study concluded that students relish the availability and flexibility of online
searching. They enjoy the graphics, the convenience, and the inputting of keywords. Children
think that using technology is a fun way to search and to learn. Bilal (2005) referenced her own
2003 article in which she explained, “children prefer search engines that are designed for adult
users such as Google, Alta Vista, AskJeeves, and Yahoo” (p. 202). Enochsson (2005) similarly
found that many students had favorite search engines with the awareness that they might retrieve
different pages depending on what engine they used.
One problem encountered by middle school students when performing online searches lies
in taking notes on the masses of information they retrieve. Many scholars describe the lure to
plagiarize without constructing personal meaning. (Bowler et al., 2001; Kuhlthau et al., 2007;
Large & Beheshti, 2000; Thompson, 2012). Not only is plagiarism prevalent, but also is the
propensity to improperly evaluate electronic sources. For the most part, students at this age
know to steer clear of unofficial sites, however they lack the skills or inclination to assess the
accuracy, validity, and authority of websites (Bowler et al., 2001; Hirsh, 1999; Large &
Beheshti, 2000; Shenton, 2005).
The School Library.
Despite the widespread use of computers and information seeking on the Internet, middle
school students continue to make much use of school libraries. As recently as 2011, Crow found
that students consulted libraries both to seek information and to find books for pleasure reading.
Middle school students ask librarians to help them put together search queries, to improve
INFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
20
information-seeking strategies, and to locate materials (Hirsh, 1999). A misconception began in
the 1990s and continues among some people today that the Internet would make libraries
obsolete. Kuhlthau et al. (2007) opined, “The opposite has proven to be the case. Books, both
fiction and nonfiction, continue to be major sources of information and ideas that students can
find, evaluate and use. Library skills, more broadly conceived as information skills or
information literacy, are essential for learning in the information age” (p. 63).
Todd and Kuhlthau (2005) conducted an in-depth study of student learning in school
libraries. Although their research involved students from grades three through twelve, their
findings hold for middle school students. Over 13,000 students participated in their study; of
those, over ninety-four percent claimed the library helped them in their information searches, in
learning, and in getting good grades. The students additionally expressed appreciation for the
help provided them in the library. The school librarian plays an integral role in middle school
students’ ISP: “The school library, and particularly the initiating intervention of the school
librarian, helps to engage students in an information needs/questioning process that enables them
to start their research, focus their searches, get input on the scope of their projects, identify
information needs, understand the nature of the task, and provide resource pathways” (p. 73).
Implications for Libraries and Information Professionals
Libraries filled with books, magazines, computers, Internet connection, and reference
materials serve middle school students best. Throughout the research literature, students report
seeking, finding, utilizing, synthesizing, and creating meaning from multiple sources in multiple
formats. The school library should reflect this reality so that it is a place where deep, active, and
personal learning takes place.
INFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
21
Students learn best when school librarians and teachers work together to structure
assignments in which students are allowed some choice in choosing their topics. Librarians
should be aware that students need enough time to conduct meaningful research and assimilate
new knowledge. As well, libraries help most when they are structured in a way that allows for
both group projects and individual information seeking.
A middle school librarian serves the role of educator, guide, and gatekeeper. It is his or her
responsibility to foster communication between all participants (teachers, assistant teachers, and
students) in the inquiry process. Kuhlthau et al. (2007) wrote, “the librarian brings together
resources from the school and from the community outside the school. The librarian’s
communication with experts outside the school provides extensive resources for the inquiry unit”
(p. 58). The librarian ensures that the library maintains an appropriate and plentiful collection to
support students’ information needs. As well, he or she aids pupils to access topical material.
Best practice for middle school research projects means that the students go at the
beginning stages of an assignment for an instructional session with the librarian. At this time
they learn: the layout of the library, how to use the card catalogue, information about
bookmarking, and how to formulate effective search terms. The librarian refreshes the young
people’s memory on what it means to plagiarize, on how to take notes, and on how to keep track
of sources consulted. They work with the classroom teacher to establish an open, friendly
rapport. They should strive to be approachable and use neutral, open-ended questioning as
recommended by Dervin (Shenton, 2005, p. 27).
Librarians need to recognize that middle school students are truly in the middle. They start
middle school in Piaget’s concrete-operational stage but steadily move toward deeper processing
and higher order thinking. It would be immensely helpful if librarians were cognizant of
INFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
22
Kuhlthau’s ISP and intervened at appropriate times to help the whole (thinking, feeling, acting)
child. A number of researchers emphasized how important reading and comprehension skills are
to the information search process. Librarians should keep alert to any reading difficulties
students may exhibit.
In regards to the Internet, middle school students use it frequently and for the most part
enjoy searching via this medium. However, preteens and teens demonstrate a marked preference
for using adult search engines and Web portals. By primarily using Google, Yahoo and Bing,
they are exposed to rampant advertising and may be directed to disturbing or inappropriate
websites. It would be ideal if librarians, educators, students, and technology experts worked
together to develop a medium in which inappropriate, adult material was filtered out. Attempts
such as Yahooligans! and Yahoo! Kids have not lasted. Bilal (2005) concluded that students
enjoy: colorful designs, explicit instructions on how to perform functions for keyword and
phrase searching, a Help feature, entertainment topics as well as educational ones, broad and
specific subject categories, and links to external search engines.
A most apt description of the school library comes from Kuhlthau et al. (2007), “the school
library is an in inquiry laboratory that functions as an exploring space, practice room and
workshop. It is more than a storage room for old books” (p. 63). In the book Guided Inquiry,
one finds fabulous recommendations to create this ‘inquiry laboratory.’ Libraries need areas for
small groups to work together, individual study spaces, places for talking, places for being quiet,
moveable tables and chairs, flexible space, computers, books, magazines, and a gathering space
for an entire class.
INFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
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Conclusion
The information behavior of middle school students in academic contexts is complex and
multi-faceted. They utilize multiple media, including print and electronic sources as well as their
peers, librarians and teachers, in their information seeking. Students achieve varied success in
their searching and greatly benefit from the wise, friendly intervention of librarians. They need
instruction and guidance as they search in books, encyclopedias, and on the Internet. The
scholarly literature depicts a picture of students enjoying and being excited about information
seeking and the learning process. The school library provides the ideal place for middle school
students to actively learn; “the library is a place for learning activism, where the emphasis is on
empowering students to use their minds well rather than merely being given the information
without requiring any mental activity” (Todd & Kuhlthau, 2005, p. 82).
Kuhlthau’s Information Search Process along with Gross’s notion of imposed queries
provides an excellent framework from which to understand middle school students’ information
behavior. Operating from a constructivist and cognitive perspective, Kuhlthau, Maniotes, and
Caspari further developed the ISP in their book Guided Inquiry. The ISP, the Model of the
Imposed Query, and the Guided Inquiry method all approach the whole student by addressing
their physical actions, affective feelings, and cognitive thinking. These models illustrate the
iterative nature of information seeking. As well, the information behavior of middle school
students entails critical thinking, which is the “complex ability where critical scrutinizing in a
logical sense is one part, and emotional aspects, which include, for examples, values and
standpoints are another” (Enochsson, 2005). In the Internet age, Enochsson rightly reasons that
critical processing further involves the ability to discern reliable information online and to
INFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
understand a variety of perspectives. Developing critical thinking is a challenging yet integral
part of the information behavior of middle school students.
Students in grades five through eight appear to strive innately for a balance in their
information seeking. For the most part, they consult a variety of both print and electronic
sources, ideally beginning with general reference works. They enter middle school preferring
concrete fact searching but move to higher order thinking. For significant learning to occur,
students do not just locate, gather, and present information; rather they engage in deep thinking
by making connections, taking ownership of the research process, seeking help when needed,
forming a focus, and ultimately emerging from the process with new knowledge and
understanding.
24
INFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS
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References
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Crow, S. R. (2011). Exploring the experiences of upper elementary school children who are
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3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=eft&AN=502806849
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Appendix
Enochsson’s (2005) Non-Linear Model of Children’s Web Searching Skills.
Note. Enochsson’s model does not view development in purely linear stages. It is a model
of how young people seek information on the Internet in school settings. The students she
consulted stressed the importance of basic language skills, computer skills, and the ability to
think critically. In her model, as children mature they move out from the center of the spiral
gaining skills and competence along the way. The spiral nature of the model emphasizes the
recursive and iterative nature of development.