From Feudalism to
Egalitarianism in Sri
Lanka
Ranjan Ramasamy
Rainfall zones of Sri Lanka
Statistics
65,525 sq km
 Population ~20 million
 Sinhala, Tamil & English spoken
 Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity and
Islam
 Executive President & Parliament
 Roman-Dutch & English law: Islamic,
Kandyan, tessavalamai laws
 Tea, rubber and coconut exports
 Apparel and light manufacturing industries
 Middle East labour
 Hydropower fully resourced ~ 40% of
electricity
 ~60% of energy from fuelwood.
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LEGENDARY HISTORY
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Earliest reference in legends - Skanda Purana
or the rise and fall of a titan overthrown by
Hindu god Skanda. A shrine to god Skanda
persists in Kataragama in the South-East.
In the later Ramayana – the kidnapping of
Queen Sita by Ravana and the destruction of
Lanka by Rama. Place names such as Sita-ela,
Sita-waka persist to this day in the central hills.
HISTORY
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Taprobane to Greeks and Romans. Derived
probably from the river Tamraparni on the
opposite Indian coast.
Serendib to Arabs from Sihala + Dwipa [island].
Early history recorded later in written chronicles
such as the Mahavamsa and Chulavamsa written
by Buddhist [Sinhalese] clergy. But also South
Indian Tamil writings [lesser consideration given]
Subsequent reliance on stone inscriptions and
archaeological artefacts.
First record in Sinhalese chronicles is the arrival of Wijaya an exiled
North Indian [Gujarati probably] nobleman and his retinue.
Sinhala=lion race as Wijaya claimed descent from a lion.
He married an aboriginal [Negroid/Melanesian race peopling much
of South/SE Asia at that time  500 BC] princess, subjugated the
inhabitants in much of the island and later discarded her for a
princess from the Pandyan court in Tamil Nadu. Many of his
followers also married similarly. They were Hindus and developed
a North-Indian language that became Sinhalese.
There probably were Tamil settlements in the North of the island
that were separated from the developing Sinhala kingdom by
extensive dry-zone jungle of the Vanni region.
Cultivation of rice was begun with aid of imported Tamil farmers
[Tamil word arisioryzarice] and played an important part in the
developing culture.
Present day rice harvesting
Early Kingdoms
The 5th king in Wijaya’s line [ 400 BC]established the capital of the Sinhala kingdom
at Anuradhapura in the North-Central dry zone.
The Sinhala king in 300 BC converted to Buddhism which was spread by Emperor
Asoka of India.
In 237 BC, the Wijaya dynasty was replaced by Tamil chieftains and the Chola kings.
Notably King Elala ruled for 44 years in Anuradhapura with legendary justice. The
ageing king was overthrown by Dutugemunu, a scion of the Wijayan line, who emerged
from his power base in the remote South of the island.
Subsequent history of the island until the arrival of the Portugese, is one of continuing
conflict between South Indian Tamil kings and the Sinhalese kings in the North-Central
dry zone. Some times Sinhala kings reigned supreme and exerted suzerainty over the
whole of the island while in other times Tamil kings [e.g. the Chola emperor Rajaraja
Chola I, 985-1014 AD] controlled it.
During this period however great irrigation works were completed
involving large lakes, smaller reservoirs and canals to facilitate rice
cultivation. There were extensive contacts with China, SE Asia, the Arab
world, and Europe. Huge cities, temples [Buddhist and Hindu] were built
and there was every indication of an advanced and prosperous society.
While Hinduism re-established itself in India the island retained
Buddhism and protection of Buddhism and the Sinhala race became a
central tenet in Sinhala culture, because of continuous Tamil invasions.
The collapse of the kingdoms based in the North Central dry zone, a
reduction in the population, and the shifting of the capital of the Sinhala
kingdom ever southwards may be partly attributed to the Tamil
invasions but upsurge of malaria may have had a role.
At about 1400 AD there were Sinhala kings ruling from Kandy and
Kotte while there was a separate Tamil kingdom in Jaffna. Arya
Chakravarti of Jaffna at about this period exerted suzerainty over the
entire island for a time. Malay and Chinese invaders were fought.
Advent of European Powers
Between 10th and 15th centuries Arabs traders were prominent and some of them settled
in coastal areas. They were involved in exporting pearl, gems, spices, elephants etc.
Their descendants and those of indentured Malay soldiers are the muslims of today.
Portugese sailors first landed in 1505AD, and soon obtained trade concessions. They
captured coastal areas, including the Tamil Kingdom of Jaffna in the North and
proselytized people to Catholicism. Two of the most magnificent Hindu temples, at
Dondra and Trincomalee were destroyed. However there was constant battle with the
Sinhala Kings from Kandy.
The Dutch were invited by King Rajasinha as allies to oust the Portugese, which was
achieved but the concessions granted to the Dutch also led to them assuming control of
the coastal areas. The Dutch began the successful plantation cultivation of cinnamon in
these areas because they were banned by the Kandyna King from collecting wild
cinnamon.
The descendants of Portugese and Dutch are termed Burghers and many
migrated to Australia in the 1960s and 1970s.
The British arrived to oust the Dutch during the European war and in
1796 all Dutch-held territories were ceded to the British. At this time the
Kings of Kandy were Tamils originating from the Nayakar court, who
has inherited the throne through marriage. By 1815 the British had
fought the Kandyan King and exiled him to Tamil Nadu. British reign
continued until 1948.
It is probably true to say that the last Tamil and Sinhala Kings, ruled as
absolute despots and were often cruel and whimsical. A network of local
feudal aristocracy existed in the Kandyan kingdom and they also
behaved with little understanding of citizens’ rights and concerns. This
helped the Colonists capture power.
The British [and the Dutch] used the existing feudal network to promote
their administration and also created a new breed of aristocrats that were
servile to them.
During the British reign, Tamil low-caste labour was brought from India
to work the tea plantations being established. Their descendants are
termed “Indian Tamils” as opposed to the native Jaffna Tamils.
Independence
Tamils and Sinhalese educated elite joined forces [with some
reservations being expressed by a few Tamils] to demand independence.
The distinctions between Tamils, Sinhalese and Muslims, were kept in
cold-storage during the latter stages of European colonization. There was
no power struggle between them as democracy, and consequently,
political influence, was not an option open to the vast majority of the
people.
The United National Party [UNP] gained the mandate to govern in 1948.
One of the first acts of this government was to disenfranchise the nearly
1 million Indian Tamils living in tea estates. There has always been
considerable anger among Kandyan peasantry during the British rule at
the taking over of surplus land by British tea planters. However the rights
of these people who had brought much wealth to the country through
their labour were not considered.
Sinhala Only
In 1956 SWRD Bandaranaike, an Oxford educated lawyer born a Christian, fought the
general election on the theme of giving more power to the Sinhala peasantry and
Buddhism, and won a majority in Parliament. Sinhala was made the official language of
government, and Buddhism exalted. This led to emigration of the Burghers and
alienation of the Tamil-speaking minority.
Although Bandaranaike later tried to make amends in the interests of the country the
flames of racism had been fanned and there resulted a violent, partial ethnic cleansing
of Tamils from outside the Northern and Eastern provinces. Indian Tamils were also
attacked. Bandaranaike was assassinated by a Buddhist monk a few years later. He was
replaced by his widow Srimavo as head of the Sri Lanka Freedom Party [SLFP] and of
the Government.
The SLFP years saw the economy collapsing under socialist policies, gross reduction in
the use of English, an apartheid like segregation of Tamils and Sinhala children in
schools and fairly blatant discrimination against Tamils in all spheres, notably in Higher
Education and the Professions.
Origins of the LTTE
The UNP government that gained office in the 1970s altered the British-parliamentary
style constitution to produce an all powerful Executive President and a cabinet of
Ministers under a Prime Minister. They embarked on economic liberalization, together
with large hydropower/irrigation schemes but did not reverse the anti-Tamil trend
among the Sinhalese. In 1983 there was a widespread anti-Tamil pogrom, with overt
support by some Ministers, that was sparked by an ambush of soldiers by the fledgling
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam [LTTE]. This resulted in a mass exodus of Tamils to
the North and migration abroad. The LTTE gained many recruits and the civil war
begun. The army was asked by President Jayewardena to brutally stifle the uprising but
it could not do so.
There was also a very violent revolt by the extreme left Sinhala Peoples Liberation
Front [JVP in Sinhala] that had its base among rural and disenchanted Sinhala youth.
The JVP was brutally crushed by 1991.
Forest Cover 1965 to 1992
Peace ?
However this brutality and the high level of corruption in the then UNP
govt led to the SLFP-led Peoples Alliance of Chandrika Bandaranaike
coming into office in 1994. This govt pursued a so-called war-for-peace
strategy which led to serious economic collapse and unabated corruption.
In 1999 this daughter of SWRD Bandaranaike was re-elected President
for 6 years, in a sympathy vote, immediately after being blinded in one
eye by an LTTE suicide bomber.
But in 2002, the UNP under Ranil Wickremasinghe won the
Parliamentary election with a small majority in coalition with Tamil and
Muslim parties. The govt declared a ceasefire with the LTTE and
commenced direct negotiations with them to evolve a Federal structure.
The Norwegians and other foreign governments were invited to partake
and facilitate the peace process.
While the economy has partly revived and there is great expectation of
peace, the President has been biding her time to overthrow the govt using
the draconian powers vested with her in the 1977 UNP-devised
constitution. The JVP, which has become a legal party, is in tow with the
PA and maintains a strident anti-Tamil policy.
The Muslims who are presently about 7% of the population [the Indian
and Jaffna Tamils probably constitute about 18%, although accurate
numbers are obviously not possible] are demanding a level of autonomy
in areas of the East where they are a majority. Although Muslims are
distributed widely, they speak Tamil in the East and some speak Sinhala
in the Sinhalese areas.
Feudal factors
The constitution
 Family hegamony in political parties e.g.
the Bandaranaikes in the PA
 Disregard for human dignity and rights
 Government attitude to citizens still
feudalistic/colonial
 Corruption and usurpation of justice
 Courts are not sufficiently responsive to
citizens
 Education responsibility, independent
thinking
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Egalitarian Factors
 Mass
media, IT, and travelmodern
values
 Free education
 International [European] involvement
 Resurgent use of English
 Declining influence of conservative
aspects of Buddhism
 Proliferation of non-governmental
organisations on human rights/freedoms
Perceptions of Global Trends
 Trade
liberalisation- Multinationals vis-àvis Traditional Production
 Low investmentS&T marginalisation
 Vested interest of arms suppliers.
 Indian socio-political impact
 Islamic fundamentalismMuslims
 Centralisation of global military power in
the US and materialism replacing
traditional Christian values.
 EU
as an European club with
economic and military arms [ NATO?]