Special Education 417/517
Direct Behavioral Observation
Basic Principles and Concepts




A procedure in which observers develop
operational definitions of the targeted behaviors
of interest, observe the subjects and
systematically record their behavior.
Easily linked to the development of
interventions.
IDEA requires observation in the evaluation of
EBD
Provides functional information regarding the
behavior and its environmental relationships
Methods of Observation

Naturalistic Observation





Observe and record behaviors at time of
occurrence in natural setting
Uses trained, objective observers
Behavioral description system requiring little
inference
Minimally intrusive
School is highly conducive to this type of
observation
Methods of Observation

Analogue Observation







Designed to simulate the conditions of the natural
environment
Requires a highly structured and controlled setting
in which behaviors of concern are likely observed.
Indirect measurement procedure
Examples – parent child role play interactions
Generalization issues - / high degree of inference
Allows for greater control of environment
Requires structure of observational setting to
closely resemble natural environment
Methods of Observation

Self Monitoring




Target child is trained in observing and recording
their own behavior
Advantages – low cost and efficiency, can tap into
covert private thoughts and its lack of
intrusiveness
Disadvantages – reliability / validity, difficult to
train child
Need to provide sufficient training, use formal
observation forms, require minimal energy for self
monitoring procedures, conduct reliability checks
and reinforce subject.
Observational Coding Procedures


How we record observational data.
Four types most commonly used




Event Recording (frequency recording)
Interval Recording
Time Sample Recording
Duration and Latency Recording
Event / Frequency Recording


A count of how many times target behavior(s)
occur during the length of the observational
period
Best suited for behaviors that:




Have clear beginning and end
Should take approximately the same amt of time
to complete each response every time the
behavior occurs
Behaviors should not occur so frequently that it is
difficult to separate occurrences
Can be used sequentially for ABC
Interval Recording






Select a time period for the length of the
observation
Divide the time period into equal intervals
Record whether the target behaviors
occurred during each interval
Example: 30 min. obs divided into 90 equal
intervals 20 second each
Usually less than 1 hr long, intervals no more
than 30 sec long – Timing device needed
Two types – Whole and partial interval
Interval Recording

Whole interval: The behavior must be
observed during the entire interval to be
recorded


Good for behaviors that are continuous (on task
behavior) and intervals that are short to medium in
length
Partial interval: Observer codes behavior if it
occurs at any time during the interval

Good for behaviors that are low frequency and
observed over fairly long intervals of time
Time Sample Recording




Observation period is divided into intervals of
time (like interval recording)
Behavior is observed only momentarily at the
prespecified intervals (e.g., at the end of a 1
minute interval – on task, not on task)
Intervals can be divided randomly or in
unequal units
Useful for behaviors that occur at a moderate
but steady rate
Time Sample Recording

Advantages




Require only one observation per interval
Less subject to the problems of getting off track
Useful for teachers who need to do other things
during observation
Disadvantages


Because you are only recording for a brief
moment in each interval you can miss many
important behaviors
Conclusions may be based on incomplete
information
Duration / Latency Recording


Focus is on the temporal aspects of the
targeted behavior
Duration Recording

Focused on how long the behavior lasts (e.g., out
of seat behavior, temper tantrums)


Difference between a student who gets out of his seat
three times during thirty minutes and student who gets
out of his one time for thirty minutes
Latency Recording

Focused on how long it takes behavior to begin
(e.g., time between directive and follow through)
Validity Issues in Observation




Defining a behavioral domain too broadly nor
too narrowly
Scorer Generalization – Assessment data
may vary because of differences between
scorers
Observer Drift – Tendency to depart gradually
from original def. of how to code behavior
Need for Social Comparison Data – helps to
determine nature and severity of the problem
Validity Issues in Observation

Reactivity Problems – obtrusiveness


Situational specificity of behavior


Use multiple settings if this is a concern
Inappropriate recording techniques


Observe on playground, enter at transition times,
sit in back of room, adjustment periods
The dimensions of the behavior and the recording
system used must mesh to a reasonable degree
Biased expectations / outside influence

Be strong and objective
Functional Behavioral Assessment



IDEA requires an FBA for students engaging
in behaviors that interfere with the
educational process
Looking at the functional relationships
between behavior and suspected causes of
the behavior
Primary goal is to develop hypotheses about
the probable functions that the behaviors
serve and to test these Hx by implementing
an intervention.
Functional Behavioral Assessment



Phase 1 – Description – Determine settings,
frequency, intensity, duration, previous
interventions, and educational impact.
Phase 2 – Function – Use information to form
hypotheses regarding the function and use
these to guide intervention
Phase 3 – Interventions – Start and monitor
Observational Coding Systems

School Based

Child Behavior Checklist – Direct Observation
Form





Behavior Coding System


96 items rated on a four point scale following 10 min.
observation
Event recording – written narrative during observation
Time sampling – Record whether child was on task at
the end of each 1 minute interval
Internalizing and Externalizing scores
Designed to measure patterns of coercive behavior and
aggression on playground and in classroom
BASC Student Observation System (SOS)
BASC – Student Observation System


15 minute observational system designed for
use in classroom settings
Defines 65 specific target behaviors that are
grouped into 13 categories



4 categories – positive adaptive behaviors
9 categories – problem behaviors
Uses momentary time sampling approach


15 minutes – 30 intervals of 30 seconds each
At end of each interval child’s behavior is
observed for three seconds
BASC – Student Observation System


At the end of the observation period, the
observer provides narrative information
Drawbacks




No information on reliability
No norms
Limited information on the validity of the
categories
Not useful for FBA – no antecedent information
Narrative Observation





Observation in any setting where descriptive
narrative provides information on behaviors
Common in assessment where formal coding
system is not necessary (overkill) or
inappropriate
Flexible, provides ongoing analysis
Include date, running time tally, activity
observed and play by play
Easy to incorporate into reports
Behavior Rating Scales
BASC, CBCL, Conners, PIY
Characteristics of Behavior Rating
Scales


Less direct than observations or interviews
They measure perceptions of specified
behavior by someone who knows child


Parent, Teacher, Primary Caregiver, Self report
One of the most commonly used instruments
in a socio-emotional / behavioral assessment
Ratings vs. Checklists

Checklists – A list of symptoms or behavioral
descriptors that rater checks if present


Checks are summed – additive in nature
Rating Scales – Allow rater to indicate if
whether symptom is absent/ present, also to
what degree


0=never 1=sometimes 2=frequent
Allows for more precise measurement of
behavioral frequency or intensity
Advantages of Behavior Rating Scales






Less expensive in terms of professional time and
training
Provide data on low frequency but important
behaviors not always seen in observations
More objective and reliable than interviews or
projectives
Can be used to assess children who cannot readily
provide information about themselves
Capitalize on observations over a period of time
Capitalize on judgments and observations of
persons who are highly familiar with subject
Problems with Behavior Rating Scales


Rating scales provide a portrait or general
idea of behavior. They do not provide actual
observational data
Response Bias



Halo effects – positive because of other positive
characteristic
Leniency effects – overly generous or overly
critical
Central tendency effects – proclivity to select
midpoint ranges
Problems with Behavior Rating Scales
cont.

Error Variance




Source variance – different raters have different
ways of responding to the rating format
Setting variance – related to situational specificity
of behavior
Temporal variance – behavior is likely to change
over time as is informants approach to the rating
Instrument variance – different scales may be
measuring different hypothetical constructs
Behavior Rating Scales

Behavior Assessment System for Children


Child Behavior Checklist


CBCL-TR, CBCL-YSR
Conners’ Parent Rating Scales – Revised


BASC-PRS, BASC-TRS, BASC-SR
TRS – long / short, PRS – long / short, Self report
Personality Inventory for Youth