The Wednesday Workshop
Dissertation Skills for MA and MSc Students:
Preparing the Research
Workshop workbook
Louise Livesey
This workshop will:
- Cover some of the pre-writing (preparatory and analysis) activities that form part of
a standard dissertation process
- Give a basic introduction to designing research, both for primary and secondarybased projects and dissertations
- Explore basic meanings of methodology and methods, data collection and analysis,
epistemology and ontology and their part in the research design process
 Introduce basic principles for students when considering ‘ethical research’
Teaching points:
 The research process
 Choosing your research question
 Ethics and ethical research
 Critical analysis of text
 Database and other sources key word searches
 Literature Review including
- Purpose
- Searching, choosing and analysing sources
- Synthesis and mapping your ideas
- Structure
 Research design process including
- Steps
- Qualitative and quantitative approaches
- Research methods
- Pilot studies
- Data analysis
 Conclusion
There is a great deal to do before you start writing your dissertation; the research process
has various stages you must work through. You may move backwards and forwards, and
start writing during a ‘research’ stage, but as long as you work through the phases, you will
be successful.
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Activity
Jot down what activities you would perform or questions you would ask next to each stage,
and draw a line above the first stage of writing.
organisation
& planning
•1
•2
plan
proposal
research
question
literature
review
•3
•4
•5
•6
research
•7
first draft
•8
revise & edit
proof &
submit
•9
You will notice that there are more preparation stages than writing stages. This gives you an
indication of the percentage of time you need to take for the pre-writing and writing
elements of the process. It always takes longer to prepare than you think it will, so start as
soon as you can.
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Choosing a research question isn’t straightforward. There are a lot of ideas and elements
to consider before you make your final choice on what you are going to investigate and how
you are going to do it. In effect, you have to analyse the field and your own research
interest. This means asking questions.
Activity Suggestions are at the back
What questions should you ask or what issues should you consider when deciding on your
research question?
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2
3
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You should be considering and incorporating ‘ethics’ and what ‘ethical research’ is into
your choice of research question as the ethical implications will determine what you may be
allowed to investigate (depending on the educational establishment you attend).
What you must consider when planning for and undertaking ‘ethical research’:
 Protect those you provide you with your information
 Protect the innocent and vulnerable
 Protect yourself and the university from harm and litigation
It is vital you ensure your research is conducted in an ethical manner, causes no harm and
retains the confidentiality of those who participate; for students working with people,
animals or tissues, this is especially pertinent.
Applying critical analysis throughout all stages of your research is key to a successful
dissertation, especially in the early stages when deciding your research field and question,
and during your literature review. But how do you do it? What does it involve? What does it
mean?
Critical analytical thinking requires you to…
 Stand back from whatever information you are given
 Examine it in detail from many angles including those based on other theorists’ or
writers’ points of view MORE THAN ONCE
 Check closely if it is completely accurate
 Check to see if each statement follows logically from what has been said before
 Look for any flaws in the reasoning, evidence or how conclusions are drawn
 Evaluate any supporting evidence
 Understand and explain why different people may have arrived at different
conclusions
 Have the ability to lay out why one argument is preferred to another
 Not to agree with questionable statements without further investigation
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 Check for hidden assumptions
 Check for words, phrases and other elements trying to persuade you into
agreement
 Consider where a viewpoint leads, i.e. what conclusions would follow and are they
suitable and rational, and if the viewpoint should therefore be reconsidered.
Activity
When reading for any stage of your research process, there are basic building blocks and
elements you should be looking for. With a neighbour or in a small group, jot down on the
small whiteboards what you think you these aspects are in a text.
Activity
Now you are aware of what to look for to analyse a piece of writing, use the frame below to
assess the text found on the handout marked ‘Rochborough Health’.
Critical questions
What is the main line of reasoning (the main
argument?)
Is the line of reasoning clear both in the
introduction and in the conclusion?
What is the key evidence used to support
the main argument? Is the evidence
presented in a way that develops the
argument and leads clearly to the
conclusion?
Analysis of text
When was the evidence produced? Is it up to
date? Is it still relevant?
Is there sufficient evidence to prove the
case? Is the evidence relevant? What might
be missing?
What (if any) would have been a better
order in which to present the evidence so as
to strengthen the line of reasoning?
Are there any examples of flawed reasoning?
Attempts to persuade the reader through an
appeal to the emotions? Is evidence
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interpreted and used correctly?
Has the writer given sufficient consideration
to alternative points of view? Give examples
General key questions you should be asking:
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Why
How far
How much
How often
To what extent
How do we know this is true
How reliable is this source
What could be going on below the surface
What do we not know about this
Which is preferable
For what reasons
Before you start to read, you need to know what to look for. You need to break the brief
or question down, even if it’s your own question. Have a look at this question:
Are glasses or contact lenses better for correcting short sight?
What do you think you should be looking for? What key search words are in this question or
suggested by this question?
Key words: Glasses, contact lenses; short sight, correction
Other words: Myopia, near sight; treatment, alleviation, reduction; spectacles
Activity
You have a go with the following question….
What is the most engaging way to deliver educational mobile content?
Key words:
Other words:
Subject librarians will be able offer advice on conducting key word searches.
A literature review is NOT just a summary of everyone else’s thoughts and discoveries,
but a dialogue between you and what has been written to contextualise and underpin your
work rather than substitute for it. Your research and dissertation will not simply repeat what
has gone before. You will synthesise the ideas, debates, arguments, theories and points of
view in the review to develop your own work and see what you will contribute to the field
and topic.
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The purposes of the search and review are to:
Develop a breadth of understanding about your field
Understand how research is conducted in your subject
Gain ideas for a topic (question) of your own
Identify what has been covered in depth already, so you are clear about how your
project can contribute in an original way and where it fits
 Put your own research into context for yourself and your reader
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A literature review is a process with a number of stages.
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Locating the literature
Selecting & assembling sources
Reading sources critically
Analysing the sources
Synthesising to develop your own ideas
Mapping ideas
Formulating potential structures
We will now look at these in more detail not forgetting the purpose of the search and
review.
Where is potentially useful information found?
*Reading lists
*Google Scholar
*Specialist peer-reviewed academic journals
*External experts
*Reference lists in reading list sources
*Specialist databases
*University Subject Librarian
What are the different types of sources available?
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Examples of primary sources
Examples of secondary sources
Articles in peer-reviewed academic journals
(printed or online)
Books written by the originator of a
particular theory, idea, model, or practice
Critics of ideas expressed in journals,
books or media providing they have built a
strong reputation for intelligent comment
in the subject area
Originators of original creative work, e.g.
authors, artists, musicians, film and stage
directors
Conference papers presenting original
research or ideas by their originators
Reports written by originator of proposals,
particularly if supported by an influential
body, agency or institution
Original Court and parliamentary
proceedings
Autobiographies
Minutes of important meetings
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Professional or trade journals, unless
they were presenting original research
findings
Newspaper reports
Tutor handouts (unless presenting
original work by the tutor))
Text books summarising the work of
others
Reference books
Wiki Internet sites
Other Internet sites summarising the
work of others
Biographies
Student dissertations
Unpublished conference papers
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Don’t forget there is a difference between primary and secondary research processes, and
primary and secondary sources.
Examples:
Performing an experiment on measurement and monitoring of air pollution is called primary
research – you are doing the experiment and obtaining results yourself.
However, you will use primary and secondary sources to investigate which experiments have
been done in this area before, who are the leading lights in this arena, etc – these are
secondary sources.
Analysing statistics produced by various television companies to discover any demographic
trends in viewers is called secondary research as you are using sources that have been
created or developed by someone else. The sources you use, the statistics, are primary
sources.
However, as above, you will use secondary sources to find out if there are any previously
produced trend information, any theories or hypotheses that could help with explaining any
trends you find, etc.
What criteria is used to select sources?
Expertise of Author
General questions
And in addition for
electronic information
Credibility of Source
General questions
And in addition for
electronic information
What qualifications and experience does the
author/originator have?
Is the author well-known in his or her field?
Do other writers in the field of study refer to
this author in their work?
Do your tutors mention this author?
Is it clear who is taking ‘ownership’ of the
online information presented?
Is there a link to any named author’s Email
address?
Is the publisher/originator of the evidence a
reputable one?
Are sources of evidence presented done so
in a credible way, e.g. properly referenced?
Does the bibliography presented by the
author seem comprehensive and wide in its
coverage?
Does the author present all relevant
background and context information of the
ideas presented, e.g. explain in a convincing
way the rationale to his or her ideas?
Is the information presented still valid? For
example, if it was written over five years ago
are the ideas still applicable today?
If it is a research finding, is the research
methodology carefully presented to the
reader?
Do your tutors recommend this Internet
site?
Why has this site been established – is it
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Relevance of
Evidence
clear from the introduction?
Who sponsors and/or pays for the site?
Who is the intended readership for the site?
Are there any open or possible biases in the
site?
Were you linked to this site from a reliable
source?
Does it look professional?
Is the site easy to navigate and use?
Does the resource follow good principles of
design, proper grammar, spelling and style?
Was the site updated recently?
The first two elements connect with this third key criterion for
selecting evidence.
Whether it is from a printed or electronic source, you will select
evidence that best supports the point you are making in the
assignment.
The formula for choosing relevant sources would be:
elements ‘author expertise’ + ‘credibility of source’ + the most
relevant evidence to the point you are making
How are sources read and analysed critically to assess their use specifically for your? What
are you looking for?
Broad overview of your field:
 Origins – broad survey of material on your topic, tracing research on it or specific
issues back to their origins
 Breadth – read widely around the subject, selecting texts that represent well the
various perspectives taken by experts in this area
 Recurrent issues – note recurrent themes and issues that might have a bearing on
your project
 Schools of thought – how are these issues treated by the key schools of thought in
your discipline
 Journals – browse abstracts and identify relevant articles to read in full
 People – find out who the leading figures in primary research related to your
selected topic are
 Topicality and currency – what issues are most recently reported in your field and
how are these relevant to your topic
 Pendulum swings – different perspectives or interpretations come into favour or are
rejected, so find out where the pendulum sits currently and what are the alternative
positions
 Methods – what are the standard methods for research topics similar to yours, and
what are the current methodological issues or problems researching in this area.
What are the challenges facing researchers in this field, and why do they arise.
 Ideology – what ideological differences are there regarding your topic and does this
affect how the research is undertaken. Will this affect you?
 Application – How is research being applied in the field?
 Gaps – What aspects are not yet fully researched and do researchers point to any
future research that will help advance understanding of the topic.
 Trajectory and links – How has published research in this area changed in direction
over time, and be clear about how understanding of this topic has developed through
successive pieces of research. Consider how each piece of research or set of ideas
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has influenced others. Look at the lit review section of the books, articles and theses
to see what research they refer to.
Making specific choices about the rest of your search:
 Become increasingly focused regarding – specialised content; relevance to your title;
reflecting on what your are finding and how it may be useful; and analytical and
critical of the material you are considering for inclusion
 Include specialist material – what is at the cutting edge of research in your subject
 Demonstrate your understanding – of the field as a whole; in the depth of your
specialist topic; of what is most significant or what is less so
 Be selective – start to make decisions about how you will make use of the material in
your own work (see the checklist on the handout)
 Decide how much you will use (see the checklist on the handout)
 Clarify your purpose – make decisions about what to read, not or include in your own
work (see the checklist on the handout)
How do I synthesise and map/plan ideas?
Most recent contributors
Different
direction
Origin
Origins: who started the line of enquiry
Direction of travel: who built on it by adding to or
going in a different direction to the original piece of
work
Contributory players: note details of who added to
the direction of travel you are most interested in
Most recent contributors: what has been published
in last few years and does it affect your approach
Themes: note themes and issues to take into
consideration as you chart the information
Development of
original idea/
theory
Most recent
contributors
Synthesis is about developing your own work and opinions based on the ideas, debates,
arguments, theories and points of view you have read about during the review. It is
choosing what is relevant, linking it to other elements, and interpreting it into something
new.
Example:
You are one of four friends that go out for a meal and watch a film, but one other
friend is unable to go. You telephone this absent friend and tell them all about the
night before.
You don’t merely report or summarise – at seven o’clock we entered the restaurant, at half
past seven John ate his started and said ‘that sauce is really tasty’, at seven thirty five
Michelle received a call, etc. OR we all went to an Italian restaurant, ate our starters, ate
our main meals, etc.
You harmonise or interpret what you ate, what you discussed, what you saw, etc. and
created something new. This is synthesis.
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There are many ways to plan or map your ideas – you can use a mind or concept map, use
diagrams, use ‘family trees’, use pieces of paper stuck to a board, use specialist software.
One every University computer, there is a software programme called MindGenius 3 (click on
the start icon, click on all programmes, and scroll down to Productivity). This will help you to
build a map of your ideas and can also be used to provide a structure for your literature
review.
What are the potential structures you can use?
One common way to approach a literature review is to start out broad and then become
more specific. Think of it as an inverted triangle:
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First briefly explain the broad issues related to your topic; you don't need to write much
about this, just demonstrate that you are aware of the breadth of your subject.
Then narrow your focus to deal with the studies that overlap with your research.
Finally, hone in on any research which is directly related to your specific investigation.
Proportionally you spend most time discussing those studies which have most direct
relevance to your research
Other structures you can use for your literature review include:
Chronological – You simply start with the earliest sources and references to your topic and
research, and work forwards to the most recent.
This structure is safe and easy.
Earliest
Most recent
Relationship to your own research topic –. You start with the sources and references that
are farthest away from your own topic and research, and work inwards to those that are
closest to your work.
This structure is fairly easy too.
Farthest
Closest
A
theme
B theme
C theme
Thematic –
If you have spotted multiple discrete themes during your reading, you could discuss them
individually. You MUST keep the themes discrete, whilst linking them together by what they
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have in common. You will also employ sub-structures too. For example, if you have grouped
your themes together, how do you order them? What structure do you use? Similarly, there
will be many references within a theme, how do you structure these? Simply use the
chronology or relationship methods as discussed earlier, depending on which one seems to
fit the best.
This is probably the most difficult structure but it can be the most effective.
Most literature reviews have sub-headings to help group the relevant research into
themes or topics. This gives a focus to your analysis, as you can group similar studies
together and compare and contrast their approaches, any weaknesses or strengths in their
methods, and their findings.
So now you’ve decided on your question but how do you design research?
Your research design is the way that you set up and conduct your research to find the
answer to your research question or test your hypothesis. They include:
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Your methodology – the principles that inform the way you make choices and
decisions in designing, undertaking and writing up your research.
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Your choice of raw material – documents, data or characteristics for participant
selection
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Your chosen methods – including any conditions you create for undertaking your
research
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Materials you develop – e.g. information provided to participants
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Your methods of recording information – at each stage of your research
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Analytical methods or employ – e.g. statistical approaches, formulae or analytical
techniques you apply to your raw data or source materials
Both objectivity and subjectivity can be appropriate to good research, depending on the
discipline and the nature of the research.
Objective research: the aim is to remove your personal feelings and response from the
equation so that the findings could be the same irrespective of who carried out the research.
Easier to attain for ‘hard’ sciences.
Subjective research: acknowledges that the methods and results will vary as a result of the
researchers themselves – the results would not be exactly the same without their personal
input. Used across all disciplines but valued differently by each.
Let’s have a look at the relationship between and the basic meanings of important
theoretical and operational terms relating to your research.
The research design process – WARNING: DIFFICULT STUFF COMING UP!
Remember, research design is a process with a number of stages all playing their part to the
outcome of information you will analyse to put forward a conclusion.
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Activity Examples at the end
The diagram below shows the flow from ontology to data collection. With a neighbour, note
down your definition of these terms.
Ontology
Epistemology
Definition
Definition
Methodology
Definition
Data Collection
(Methods)
Analysis
Activity (use glossary for definition of paradigm)
Using the blank frame and sheet with phrases on, work out which elements make up which
paradigm, cut them out and place them on the frame.
Quantitative and qualitative approaches
The former focuses on what can be measured in an objective way whilst the latter
endeavours to extend our understanding of human behaviour, individually and collectively,
by investigating underlying causes for people acting and thinking as they do.
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What is a research method?
Activity
Read the following statements and decide which are advantages or disadvantages for
quantitative or qualitative approaches. Each is allocated a number; please jot down the
number of the statement in the box under the appropriate heading.
Advantages
Quantitative
Disadvantages
Advantages
Qualitative
Disadvantages
1. They are useful for in-depth analysis of individual people, businesses, events and
occurrences.
2. Projects that use quantitative approaches are generally easier to plan and to contain
in size, making them ideal for student projects.
3. They enable study on a broader scale, such as through online surveys, generating
large amounts of data which can be analysed relatively easily using relevant
software.
4. The results can lack ecological validity.
5. They can be unpredictable, making them harder to manage and contain.
6. They help establish patterns such as trends in behaviour, or in science, ‘universal
laws’.
7. The research questions or hypotheses tend to be very precisely articulated, allowing
the possibility of precise answers.
8. They tend to more open-ended, allowing a greater set of responses to emerge.
9. Findings may be useful to the particular case but not more generally applicable.
10. They have greater ecological validity.
11. There is a risk of gaining rather banal results.
12. The scale of the research makes it easier to draw reasonably valid generalisations in
a relatively short timeframe.
13. Not everything is easily measured. There is a risk of gaining skewed understanding
of a phenomenon as a result of omitting those aspects that can’t be measured.
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Activity
What would be your suggested methods of data collection for each paradigm based on the
table above?
Use of primary or/and
secondary sources
Positivistic Paradigm Methods
Post-positivistic Paradigm Methods
Pilot studies
These are a great way to see what works and what doesn’t, and can assist in producing a
strong written proposal. When writing it up you need to include:
What you set out to do
What you did
The results
A succinct, critical outline of what works, any flaws that were apparent and what
would improve or fine-tune the research
 How you plan to adapt your approach and methods for when you start to collect data
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Keep it brief and to the point:
 Avoid praising the parts that went well
 Don’t apologise or make excuses for anything that needs to be improved
 Do include copies of materials used, or data collected during the pilot.
You’ve collected and collated your data, what next? Analysis. This process involves
discovering what the research tells you – your findings.
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Be selective and focused: ask yourself which data is relevant to your research
question – you won’t need the whole mountain of data you may have accumulated.
You must be meticulous and careful at all times or your findings will be questionable.
Ask yourself if what you expected was confirmed or was there anything contradictory
and surprising.
Tip – analyse your data in batches as it becomes available. You can then integrate it and see
whether you need to change your work directions. It also indicates what kinds of findings
are emerging.
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Consider the following for your conclusion:
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The significance of your findings, i.e. what is the likelihood that your results could
have been discovered by chance or how statistically significant is it?
Generalisability, i.e. can others use your model, and either replicate it or develop it?
Reliability, i.e. could another researcher carry out the same research with the same
kind of group and replicate your findings (although need not be identical findings)?
Validity, i.e. have your methods provided appropriate findings for the research
question/s you have asked?
References
Burnett, J. (2009) Doing Your Social Science Dissertation. London:Sage Publications Ltd.
Cottrell, S. (2003) The Study Skill Handbook. 2nd Ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Cottrell, S. (2014) Dissertations and Project Reports. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan
Dunleavy, P. (2003 ) Authoring a PhD. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Farlex Incorporated. Huntingdon Valley: Farlex Incorporated
Search term: paradigm
http://www.thefreedictionary.com Accessed 25.3.14
Dr. Raddon, A. (2010) Early Stage Research Training: Epistemology and Ontology in Social Science
Research. Leicester: University of Leicester
http://www2.le.ac.uk/colleges/socsci/documents/research-training-presentations/EpistFeb10.pdf
Accessed 25.3.14
http://www.literaturereviewhq.com/3-great-methods-to-structure-your-literature-review/ Accessed
28.3.14
Wallace, M. and Wray, A. (2011) Critical Reading and Writing for Postgraduates. 2nd ed. London: Sage
Publications Ltd.
Wikipedia Foundation Incorporated (2014)
Search terms: ontology, epistemology, methodology
http://en.wikipedia.org/ Accessed 28.3.14
Wisker, G. (2008) The Postgraduate Research Handbook. 2nd ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Lydia Lunning, L. Writing The Literature Review. Minneapolis: Waldon University
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GpErYDb6PsY Accessed 28.3.14
With thanks to the LDU and Jennifer Rowland of the Library.
Answers
Research question activities or questions
 Consider level of interest, availability of resources, usefulness for ‘field’ via literature search
 Check key words which define the topic.
 Ask questions to direct research.
 Use questions to make a rough plan.
 Consider the methodology and meta-research needed? What experiments need to be
designed? Is data collection involved?
What you should look for when critically thinking when reading
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
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Identifying the line of reasoning
Critically evaluating the line of reasoning
Questioning surface appearances and checking for hidden assumptions or agendas
Identifying evidence
Evaluating the evidence according to valid criteria
Identifying the conclusion
Deciding whether the evidence given supports these conclusions
Key and other word searches
Key words: engagement, mobile content, education
Other words: interest, learning (?games)
Other words: app, phone, tablet
Other words: learning (? age range)
Examples using different philosophical and methodological approaches
Positivistic
Post-positivistic
Ontology
World is knowable and measurable
World is perceived and interpreted
Epistemology
Knowledge
Understanding
Methodology
Survey
Survey
Data collection
Highly structured questionnaire
Loosely structured interviews
methods
Quantitative
National Student Survey on student
satisfaction
Qualitative
Student learning styles and
approach to study at individual
university
Quantitative and qualitative
Quantitative
Advantages
Disadvantages
3,7,12,6,2
13,11,4
Advantages
8,1,10
Elements of paradigms
Positivistic Paradigm
Concerned with testing hypotheses
Uses large samples
Data is highly specific and precise
High reliability
Low validity
Generalises from sample to population
Produces quantitative data
Post-positivistic Paradigm
Concerned with generating theories
Uses small samples
Data is rich and subjective
Low reliability
High validity
Generalises from one setting to another
Produces qualitative data
Methods of paradigms
Use of primary or/and
secondary sources
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Secondary
Primary
Secondary
Qualitative
Positivistic Paradigm Methods
Structured detached-observer
non-participant involved
observation
Questionnaire: structured closed
questions
Experiment
Structured interview closed
questions
Use of statistical data
Disadvantages
9,5
Post-positivistic Paradigm Methods
Involved observer and participant
observation
Questionnaire: less-structured open
questions
Less-structured interview openquestions
Focus group
Use of reports
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Primary
Close measurement
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