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Italy is shaped like a boot
It is centrally located in the Mediterranean
Sea
Rome is centrally located in Italy
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The Apennines Mountains run down the
peninsula but are not very rugged
Italy has broad fertile plains
The fertile plains make it easy to support a
growing population
Most of the population lived in the western
part of the peninsula
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Roman mythology – Romulus and Remus
founded Rome in 753 BC
Rome is built on 7 hills on the Tiber River
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The other peoples that lived in Italy were the
Etruscans to the north and the Greeks to the
south.
The Etruscans conquered Rome in 600BCE
and ruled it for about 100 years
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The Etruscans will have a great influence on
the Romans
◦ Learned how to drain swamps
◦ Introduction of the arch
◦ Adopted the Etruscan alphabet which was adopted
from the Greeks
◦ Religion – gods & goddesses, similar to those of
Etruscans and Greeks
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509BCE- Romans overthrew the last Etruscan
king – Tarquan the Proud
Swore never to be governed by a monarchy
again
Established a Republic – where all citizens
had the right to vote to elect their
representative
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In the early republic the Senate was the most
important governing body
It was made up of 300 members from the
Patricians – landholding aristocracy – who
served for life
Every year 2 consuls (Patricians) were elected
to supervise the government, command the
army (limited to one term)
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The Senate in times
of emergency could
appoint a dictator –
absolute power for 6
months
Ideal example was
Cincinnatus
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Plebeians were the common people – majority of
the population – they had very little say in the
government
450 BCE – the Law of the Twelve Tables – the laws
of Rome (first written law code) written down and
placed in the Forum
Innocent until proven guilty—face accuser before a
judge
Plebeians gained the right to elect Tribunes The
tribunes could veto, or block, laws that they felt
harmed plebeians.
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Other changes in Roman society
◦ Plebeians allowed to elect tribunes to protect their
interests
◦ Opened all high offices to plebeian class
◦ Allowed plebeians to serve in the Senate
◦ Plebeians allowed to marry patricians
More than 2,000 years later, the framers of the
United States Constitution would adapt
Roman ideas of government, such as the
senate, the veto, and checks on political
power.
The family was the basic unit of Roman society.
Male was head of household and had absolute
authority. – Paterfamilias (dominant male)—until he
died son’s could not legally own property
He enforced strict discipline and demanded total
respect for his authority. His wife was subject to
his authority (kill her for adultery or divorce her at
will). He could whip, sell, imprison, or kill any of
his children. Wife not allowed to administer her
own affairs.
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The ideal Roman woman was loving, dutiful,
dignified, and strong.
Virtues expected were fidelity, chastity,
modesty, and dedication to family
Women will gain more freedom during the
empire
Father arranged marriages of their
daughters – legal age for girls to marry -12
but 14 was more common. Boys could
marry at 14 but usually later.
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Wife was matron of the family
Ran household, supervised the domestic
slaves, planned the meals, and devoted
herself to her children
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Girls and boys (wealthy) alike learned to
read and write. Even lower-class Romans
were taught to write.
Girls pushed into marriage while boys
moved into secondary schools – history &
rhetoric important.
wealthy Romans were hiring private tutors,
often Greeks, to supervise the education of
their children.
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No other people in the ancient world had
more slaves than the Romans- estimate
about 1 slave for every 2 to 4 Romans
Treatment varied from humane to torture –
very strict laws against helping runaway
slaves.
Manumission—freeing of individual slaves
by their masters—will become common so
laws were passed to limit the practice
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Roman gods and goddesses resembled
those of the Etruscans and Greeks. Like the
Greek god Zeus, the Roman god Jupiter
ruled over the sky and the other gods. Juno,
his wife, like the Greek goddess Hera,
protected marriage. Romans also prayed to
Neptune, god of the sea, whose powers
were the same as those of the Greek god
Poseidon. On the battlefield, they turned to
Mars, the god of war.
Roman calendar full of feast days to honor
various gods- everyone joined in - created
unity
By about 270BCE, Rome controlled most of the
Italian peninsula.
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Rome's success was due to
skillful diplomacy and to its
loyal, well-trained army.
The basic military unit was
the Legion, made up of
about 5,000 men. Roman
armies consisted of citizensoldiers who fought without
pay and supplied their own
weapons. Roman citizens
often made good soldiers
because they were brought
up to value loyalty, courage,
and respect for authority.
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To ensure success, Roman commanders
mixed rewards with harsh punishment. Young
soldiers who showed courage in action won
praise and gifts. If a unit fled from battle,
however, 1 out of every 10 men from the
disgraced unit was put to death.
Why was Rome’s expansion in Italy successful?
 Skilled diplomacy
 Loyal, well-trained army
 Treated defeated enemies fairly
 Gave rights to conquered people
◦ conquered people to keep own customs, money &
local government
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Roman soldiers were posted to protect the
conquered lands
◦ Retired soldiers given lands on the frontier
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Romans built excellent road system – helped
trade & travel
Appian Way
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After gaining control of the Italian peninsula,
Rome began to build an empire around the
Mediterranean Sea.
The Romans followed a policy of imperialism,
establishing control over foreign lands and
peoples
Carthage, Macedonia, Greece, and parts of
Asia Minor became Roman provinces, or
lands under Roman rule.
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Rome's conquest of the Italian peninsula
brought it into contact with Carthage, a
city-state on the northern coast of Africa.
Settled by North Africans and Phoenician
traders, Carthage ruled over an empire that
stretched across North Africa and the
western Mediterranean. As Rome expanded
westward, conflict between these two
powers became inevitable.
Punic Wars fought for control of Western
Mediterranean Region
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Lasted 23 years
Fought mainly for control of Sicily, Corsica &
Sardinia
Rome needed to develop a navy – the Raven
Rome wins: Carthage forced to pay war
indemnity plus lost Sicily, Corsica & Sardinia
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Carthaginians wanted revenge
Carthaginian general Hannibal led his army,
including dozens of war elephants, on an epic
march across the Pyrenees, through France,
and over the Alps into Italy. The trek cost
Hannibal nearly half his army and almost all
his elephants.
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However, the Carthaginian general had
surprised the Romans. For 15 years, Hannibal
and his army moved across Italy, winning
battle after battle.
Battle of Cannae Hannibal most impressive
Rome lost about 70,000 men – 20% of the
Senate, 1 consul, and nearly all their officers
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Rome decides to attack Carthage – Rome led
by General Scipio
Hannibal returns to defend Carthage and is
defeated—battle of Zama
Carthage must give up all lands outside
Africa, pay huge tribute to Rome, can not
wage war without Rome permission
Cato, a wealthy
senator, ended every
speech he made
with the words
“Carthage must be
destroyed.”
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Third Punic War, Rome completely destroyed
Carthage. Survivors were killed or sold into
slavery. The Romans poured salt over the
earth so that nothing would grow there again.
The Romans were now masters of the western
Mediterranean
Macedonia, Greece, and parts of Asia Minor
surrendered and became Roman provinces,
that is, lands under Roman rule. Other
regions, like Egypt, allied with Rome.
Romans called the Mediterranean Mare
Nostrum, or “Our Sea.”
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A new class of wealthy Romans emerged.
They built lavish mansions and filled them
with luxuries imported from the east.
Wealthy families bought up huge estates,
called latifundia. As the Romans conquered
more and more lands, they forced people
captured in war to work as slaves on the
latifundia. The farmers' problems were
compounded when huge quantities of grain
poured in from the conquered lands and
drove down grain prices. Many farmers fell
into debt and had to sell their land.
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Latifundia- huge estates owned by the
wealthy. They used slave labor which hurt
Roman farmers by driving down the price of
grain
Small farmers went into debt and lost their
land, flocked to cities to find work
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Farmers joined a restless class of unemployed
people. As the gap between rich and poor
widened, angry mobs began to riot.
The new wealth also increased corruption
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Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, two young
patricians brothers, attempted reforms.
Tiberius, elected tribune in 133 BCE, called
on the state to distribute land to poor
farmers. Gaius, elected tribune 10 years later,
sought a wider range of reforms, including
using public funds to buy grain to feed the
poor
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The Gracchus brothers’ reforms angered the
senate, which saw them as a threat to its
power.
What do you think happens to brothers?
What will be the result?
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100 years of Civil War
Slave uprisings – Spartacus (73-71 BCE) as
well as revolts by Roman allies
Changes in the Roman army – Legions
became professional armies with loyalty to
their commanders – generals became very
powerful-Marius recruited army from urban
poor-Sulla wins civil war
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Caesar along with
Crassus and Pompey
form the First
Triumvirate
59 BCE, Caesar set out
with his army to make
new conquests. After
nine years of fighting,
he completed the
conquest of Gaul—the
area that is now France.
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Fearful of Caesar's rising fame, Pompey
persuaded the senate to order Caesar to
disband his army and return to Rome.
If Caesar obeyed Senate, what would his fate
be on returning to Rome?
Caesar defied the order. Swiftly and secretly,
he led his army across the Rubicon River into
northern Italy and then headed toward Rome
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Caesar crushed Pompey and his supporters to
take power. He then swept around the
Mediterranean, suppressing rebellions. “Veni,
vidi, vici”—“I came, I saw, I conquered”—he
announced after one victory.
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Returning to Rome, he forced the senate to
make him dictator. Although he kept the
senate and other features of the republic, he
was in fact the absolute ruler of Rome.
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Gave land to the poor
Increased the size of the Senate to 900
Gave citizenship to people in the provinces
which made them loyal to Rome
Adopted the Egyptian calendar - Julian
calendar – lasted until 1582
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Gaius Cassius &
Marcus Brutus
along with other
senators plot to kill
Caesar
In March 15, 44
BCE., the Ides of
March, as Caesar
arrived in the
senate, his enemies
stabbed him to
death.
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The death of Julius Caesar plunged Rome into
a new round of civil wars. Mark Antony,
Caesar's chief general, and Octavian, Caesar's
grandnephew and Marcus Lepidus joined
forces to hunt down the murderers.
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The two men soon quarreled, however,
setting off a bitter struggle for power. In 31
BCE., Octavian finally defeated Antony and his
powerful ally Queen Cleopatra of Egypt at the
Battle of Actium.
Octavian at 32 will stand alone as ruler of the
Roman world – the republic has ended
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senate gave the triumphant Octavian the title
of Augustus, or Exalted One, and declared
him first princep, or first citizen. Careful not
to call himself king, a title that Romans had
hated, Augustus exercised absolute power
and named his successor, just as a king
would do.
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taking a census (conducted by censors) to
make tax system fairer
Set up postal service
Issue new coins to make trade easier
Put jobless to work on public projects and
on farms
Opened up high-level jobs to men of talent,
regardless of race.
Created efficient civil service to enforce the
laws.
Augustus laid the foundation for a stable
government that would function well for 200
years. This period of peace and prosperity is
called the Pax Romana.
During the Pax Romana Rome enjoyed great
success- there was unity & prosperity as
Roman legions maintained roads & protected
the people – ideas & technology moved freely
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Not all of Augustus' successors
were great rulers. Two early
emperors, Caligula and Nero,
were evil and perhaps insane.
Caligula, for example,
appointed his favorite horse as
consul. Nero viciously
persecuted Christians and was
even blamed for setting a great
fire that destroyed much of
Rome.
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Between. 96 AD and 180 AD,
the empire benefited from the
rule of a series of “good
emperors.” The emperor
Hadrian, codified Roman law,
making it the same for all
provinces. He also had
soldiers build a wall across
Britain to hold back attackers
from the non-Roman north.
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Trajan – ruled
Roman Empire at its
greatest size – first
non-Italian
emperor (born in
Spain) built the
Pantheon
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Marcus Aurelius –death
ended the Pax Romana.
Follower of Stoicism
Wrote Meditations
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At the Circus Maximus, Rome's largest
racecourse, chariots thundered around an
oval course, making dangerously tight turns
at either end. Fans bet feverishly on their
favorite teams—the Reds, Greens, Blues, or
Whites—and successful charioteers were
hailed as heroes.
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Gladiator contests were even more popular.
Many gladiators were slaves who had been
trained to fight. In the arena, they battled one
another, either in pairs or in groups. Crowds
cheered a skilled gladiator, and a good
fighter might even win his freedom. But if a
gladiator made a poor showing, the crowd
turned thumbs down, a signal that he should
be killed.
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The emperors paid for them with the taxes
they collected from the empire, these
amusements were a way to pacify the city's
restless mobs. In much the same spirit, the
government provided free grain to feed the
poor. Critics warned against this policy of
“bread and circuses,” but few listened.
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Romans used the ideas of the Greeks who
lived in southern Italy
Imitated the Greek style for their early
literature, philosophy & history
Classic Roman literature is the Aenied – by
Virgil—Aeneas founding Rome
Tried to show that Rome’s past was as heroic
as that of Greece
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the Historian Livy sought to
rouse patriotic feeling and
restore traditional Roman
virtues by recalling images of
Rome's heroic past. In his
History of Rome, Livy
recounted tales of great heroes
such as Horatius and
Cincinnatus.
Tacitus wrote Germania and
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Julius Caesar wrote
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Annals
Commentaries on the Gallic
Wars
Pliny the Elder compiled 37—volume work
called Natural History (died when Mt. Vesuvius
erupted)
Adopted the Greek Stoicism – stressed the
importance of duty & acceptance of one’s fate.
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Like the Greeks before them,
Roman sculptors stressed
realism, portraying their
subjects with every wart and
vein in place. The Romans also
broke new ground, however, by
revealing an individual's
character. A statue of a soldier,
a writer, or an emperor might
capture an expression of
smugness, discontent, or
haughty pride.
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While the Greeks aimed for simple elegance
in architecture, the Romans emphasized
grandeur. Immense palaces, temples, and
stadiums stood as mighty monuments to
Roman power and dignity. The Romans
improved on devices such as the column
and the arch. Using concrete as a building
material, they developed the rounded dome
to roof large spaces. The most famous
domed structure is the Pantheon, a temple
to all the Roman gods, which still stands in
Rome
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The Trajan
Columns
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Arc of
Constantine
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Romans were the world’s best engineers
◦ Developed concrete
◦ Caesar bridged the Rhine river in less than a week
Roman engineers also built many immense
aqueducts, or bridge-like stone structures
that brought water from the hills into
Roman cities. The wealthy had water piped
in, and almost every city boasted public
baths. Here, people gathered not only to
wash themselves but to hear the latest news
and exchange gossip.
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astronomer-mathematician Ptolemy
proposed his theory that the Earth was the
center of the universe, a mistaken idea that
was accepted in the western world for
nearly 1,500 years.
Galen advanced the frontiers of medical
science by insisting on experiments to
prove conclusion. Galen compiled a medical
encyclopedia summarizing what was
known at the time. It remained a standard
text for more than 1,000 years
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One of their greatest achievements was their
commitment to the rule of law
◦ Innocent until proven guilty
◦ Right to face your accuser
◦ Your guilt must be established through evidence
◦ Judges (praetors) expected to make fair decisions
It has become the basis for most of the legal
systems in Europe & the Americas
Law of Nations applied to foreigners not covered
under civil law
As long as people honored Roman gods and
acknowledged the divine spirit of the
emperor, they were allowed to worship other
gods as they pleased.
After the Romans conquered Judea, they
excused the monotheistic Jews from
worshiping the Roman gods.
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Romans tolerated other religions in the
empire
Jews were treated differently by Romans
Jews were not forced to worship Roman gods
Coins with the emperor’s face on them were
not used in Judea
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While most Jews were reluctantly willing to
live under Roman rule, others, called Zealots,
called on Jews to revolt against Rome and
reestablish an independent state.
Some Jews (Essenes) believed that a messiah,
or anointed king sent by God, would soon
appear to lead the Jewish people to
freedom—Sadducees were Jews who
cooperated with the Romans
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In 66 CE, discontent flared into rebellion.
Roman forces crushed the rebels—rebellion
will break out again (last rebellion 134-136)
Thousands of Jews were killed in the fighting,
and many others were enslaved and
transported to various parts of the empirethe Diaspora
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What we know of the life of Jesus comes from
the first 4 books of the New Testament
(Gospels)– reported to be written by Matthew,
Mark, Luke, & John
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Jesus was born in Bethlehem, near Jerusalem.
Growing up in the small town of Nazareth,
Jesus worshiped God and followed Jewish law.
As a young man, he may have worked as a
carpenter, the occupation of Mary's husband
Joseph. At the age of 30, he began preaching.
To help him in his mission, he recruited twelve
close followers, known as the apostles, from
the Greek word meaning “a person sent forth.”
Chief among these was one called Peter.
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Jesus' teachings were firmly rooted in Jewish
tradition.
Jesus believed in one God and accepted the
Ten Commandments.
He preached obedience to the laws of Moses
and defended the teachings of the Jewish
prophets.
Taught through parables--short stories with
simple moral lessons
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At the same time, Jesus preached new beliefs.
According to his followers, He called himself
the Son of God ( aka Savior)
Many people believed He was the messiah
whose appearance Jews had long predicted.
His mission was to bring spiritual salvation
and eternal life to those who believed
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Jesus worried Jewish
leaders & Roman
authorities
Jesus was arrested and
taken before the Prefect
Pontius Pilate. He was
condemned to die by
crucifixion
Known as “Christos” or
anointed one
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Emphasized the importance of brotherly love,
the love of God, and a kingdom in heaven,
not on earth
Jesus insisted that he taught in his own name,
not that of Yahweh
At first, the
apostles and
disciples
preached only in
Judea.
Christians will
meet in the
catacombs of
Rome because of
persecution
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Paul, a Jew will be most responsible for
spreading the teachings of Jesus – spreading
them to non-Jews or gentiles
Paul sets up churches throughout the Roman
Empire—Jerusalem was first center of
Christianity
Written letters called the epistles outlined
Christian beliefs
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Romans did not tolerate Christianity –
suspected Christians of being disloyal
Used as scapegoats by Roman leaders
during economic & social troubles
Many Christians became martyrs, people
willing to die for their beliefs. They were
burned at the stake, crucified, dipped in
pitch and burned in the garden of Nero for
light, fed to the lions. The persecutions
lasted from 60 CE to 300s CE
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The appeal of Christianity was that Jesus
welcomed all people. They found comfort in
His message of love and eternal life
Stressed compassion for all
Initiation is baptism
Women played a major role in the early
Christian church
Early Christian communities shared a
common faith and a common way of
worship.
A bishop was responsible for all Christians in
a particular area called a diocese—hierarchy
will develop
RCC councils will establish Church doctrine—
heresy or holding beliefs contrary to RCC
will spring up
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The Bishop of Rome will become the leader of
the Church and be accepted as pope – father
of the Roman Catholic Church—Peter “the
Rock” was first Bishop of Rome
In 313 CE emperor Constantine issued the
Edict of Milan – religious freedom of worship
to all citizens
395 CE Emperor Theodosius made
Christianity the official religion of the Roman
Empire
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Death of Marcus Aurelius = end of Pax
Romana – next 100 years political &
economic turmoil and decline
Rome controlled by a series of generals who
made themselves emperor – from 234 to 284
CE - 26 emperors, only one died of natural
causes
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Economic & Social problems
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Heavy taxes hurt small businesses & farmers
Corruption
Trade disruption
over cultivation – farms lost their productivity
Diocletian 284
Divided the empire into
two parts to make it
easier to govern
Fixed prices to slow
inflation, or the rapid
rise of prices
Established laws to
ensure steady
production of food and
goods
Farmers forced to
remain on land
Worst persecutor of
Christians
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Constantine 312
Continued Diocletian’s
reforms
Granted toleration to
Christians, which led to
the rapid growth of
Christianity- Nicene
Creed stated Jesus was
son of God
Built a new capital at
Constantinople,
making the eastern
part of the empire the
center of power
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Reforms revived the economy but failed to
stop long term decline
Will keep the empire together for another 100
years but a combination of internal problems
& external invasions will bring down
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HUNS—invaders from the East—warriors on
horseback
OSTROGOTHS
VISIGOTHS—escape the invading Huns
FRANKS
VANDALS—establish control in Carthage
SAXONS
ANGLES
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Many Germanic tribes took part in
destruction of Rome
Visigoths pushed into Roman Empire as the
result of Hun invasion
In 378 CE the Romans will suffer a crushing
defeat by Visigoths at the battle of
Adrianople—Emperor Valens killed
Proved Romans could no longer protect
their borders
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410 CE – Visigoths under Alaric captured
Rome & looted for 3 days – citizens bribed
him with Spain
452 CE Huns – Attila “Scourge of God”
Pope Leo I convinced Attila not to attack
Rome
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455 CE Vandals –
Gaiseric the Lame
sacked Rome &
thousands taken and
sold into slavery in
North Africa
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476 The last Roman
emperor Romulus
Augustulus lost his
throne to a Germanic
leader – Odoacer – this
event is known as the
“Fall of Rome”
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CITIZENS LOSING RESPONSIBILITY TOWARD
THE GOVERNMENT
CORRUPTION AND VASTNESS OF EMPIRE
THE DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE
NO CAPABLE LEADERS BECAUSE OF THE LACK
OF A LAW FOR SUCCESSION
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MOST OF THE WEALTH IN THE EASTERN PART
OF EMPIRE
NO LOOT COMING IN FROM THE ARMIES
TRADE HURT BY CIVIL WARS AND INVASIONS
HEAVY TAXES, INFLATION AND HIGH
UNEMPLOYMENT
FREE GRAIN TO THE POOR
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TRADITIONAL ROMAN VALUES DECLINED
PLAGUE WIPED OUT THE POPULATION
CHRISTIANITY’S EMPHASIS ON A SPIRITUAL
KINGDOM WEAKENED ROMAN MILITARY
VIRTUES
SOLDIERS HAD VERY LITTLE LOYATLY
ROMAN FAILED TO ADVANCE IN
TECHNOLOGY B/C OF SLAVERY
LEAD POISONING FROM CUPS AND WATER
PIPES
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The eastern empire - Byzantine Empire- will
last another 1,000 years but in the west over
the next centuries Roman language &
customs will be replaced by German