Welcome to the
Upper Perkiomen High School
Writing Manual
Purpose: This wiki space was developed as an online source for teachers and students
of Upper Perkiomen High School who have questions, concerns or interests in writing. It
is our hope that individuals find the subject matter contained therein to be helpful in any
type of writing that anyone may attempt for any discipline. It is our goal to share as
much knowledge of writing and its process as we can to help others become better
writers.
How to use this site: This booklet is designed to be accessible to anyone. Topics have
been arranged according to their relevance in the writing process. If there is a question
or concern that have but do not see, please feel free to contact a member of the English
department or the administrator. We will be glad to help you and hopefully provide you
with the appropriate information.
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Upper Perkiomen High School Writing Manual
Table of Contents
Expository Writing
Topical Patterns……………………………………………………………………………..5
Cause and Effect………………………………………………………………………………6
Process Analysis/Sequential Order………………………………………… ……..7
Comparison and Contrast………………………………………………………………8-9
Problem/Solution……………………………………………………………………………10
Advantages/Disadvantages…………………………………………………………….11
Persuasive Writing
Classical System……………………………………………………………………………12-13
Toulmin Method…………………………………………………………………………..14-17
Narrative Writing
Chronological Order……………………………………………………………………..19-20
Emphatic Order…………………………………………………………………………….21-22
Spatial Arrangement………………………………………………………………………23
Pre-Writing
Cluster Mapping…………………………………………………………………………….25
Sequence Mapping………………………………………………………………………..25
Quick-write/Free-write………………………………………………………………….26
KWL Chart………………………………………………………………………………………27
Venn Diagram………………………………………………………………………………..28
Journal Writing
Reaction-based journals………………………………………………………………..30
2
Double-Entry journals……………………………………………………………………30-31
Thesis Statements……………………………………………………………………………………..32-33
Topic Sentence Writing……………………………………………………………………………..34-35
Supporting Evidence………………………………………………………………………………….36-39
Purpose/Audience/Tone…………………………………………………………………………..40-42
Refutation and Counter Arguments………………………………………………………….43-44
Annotation………………………………………………………………………………………………..45-48
Quoting from Sources……………………………………………………………………………….49-50
Embedding Quotations……………………………………………………………………………..51-52
Anecdotes………………………………………………………………………………………………….53
Criticism…………………………………………………………………………………………………….54-56
MLA Works Cited……………………………………………………………………………………….57-61
Titles…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..62
Headings and Headers……………………………………………………………………………….63-64
UPHS Library……………………………………………………………………………………………….65-68
Grammar
Terms to know…………………………………………………………………………………69
Subject-Verb Agreement…………………………………………………………………70-71
Sentence Structure………………………………………………………………………….72
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement…………………………………………………...73-77
Passive Voice…………………………………………………………………………………...78
Comma Usage………………………………………..………………………………………………….79-80
MLA Formatting Guide……………………………………………………………..……………….81
3
Exposition/Expository Writing
Purpose: The purpose of expository writing is to inform, explain, describe, or define the
author's subject to the reader
Organizational Structures: There are a number of ways in which expository writing
can be effectively structured, depending on the intent and/or audience of the piece.
Listed below are some of the most commonly used expository writing techniques.
Types: The following types of expository writing are explained in detail below:






Topical pattern
Cause and Effect
Process/Analysis or Sequential
Compare/Contrast
Process/Solution
Advantage/Disadvantage
4
Topical Pattern:

This pattern is the most commonly used format, and will typically work when the
other patterns do not. A topical pattern arranges information according to
different sub-topics within a larger topic, or the "types" of things that fall within a
larger category. Using this pattern, each "type" represents a main section of
information.
For example, suppose a writer wished to describe various types of vehicles. One way to
outline this information would be to divide the type of vehicle by its size, as shown in this
example:
I. Cars


Japanese
o Honda Civic
o Toyota Corolla
American
o Chevy Cavalier
o Ford Focus
II. Trucks


Japanese
o Honda Ridgelines
o Toyota Tundra
American
o Chevy Avalanche
o Ford F150
5
Cause and Effect

Cause and effect are two different concepts. Using one or the other depends on
what part of a situation you want to stress. Stating the causes and/or effects of a
topic is helpful in persuading readers to make a decision about a topic.
o Causes tell readers why something happened. For example, numerous
stolen bikes on campus cause students to register their bikes. Smoking
causes lung cancer. Typing for many hours causes carpal tunnel.
o Effects are the results of something. For example, fifty new bike racks
were put on campus with funding from registered bikes. Twelve hundred
smokers die every year from lung cancer. Carpal tunnel is now discussed
in many employee training programs.
Cause and Effect Pattern (Example 1)
I. Causes of Obesity


Poor food choices
Lack of exercise
II. Effects of these causes





Diabetes
Heart Disease
Joint Damage
Stroke
Death
Cause and Effect Pattern (Example 2)
I. Cause: Sun Damage


Effect: Skin Cancer
Effect: Premature Aging
II. Cause: Environmental Toxins

Effect: Skin Discoloration
6

Effect: Dry Skin Conditions
Process Analysis/Sequential

A sequential pattern of organization arranges information according to a step-bystep sequence that describes a particular process. The points included within
each main section represent the sub-steps one would follow.
For example, suppose a writer's stated purpose is to explain how a peanut shrub is
planted.
Sequential Pattern Example
I. Step One: Prepare the earth


Remove rocks and roots
Dig hole twice the size of plant
II. Step Two: Plant the shrub


Place shrub in hole
Replace dirt
III. Step Three: Plant care


Water thoroughly
Add fertilizer as needed
7
Compare/Contrast
A comparative, or compare/contrast essay is an essay in which one finds the similarities
and differences between subjects.
In this section, two classic organizational patterns of a comparison/contrast essay will
be discussed. One is called block arrangement of ideas; the other is called point-bypoint or alternating arrangement of ideas. Suppose we are interested in showing the
similarities and differences between The Odyssey and the film, O Brother Where Art
Thou?
One way to arrange the material is to use the arrangement where we write about the
similarities in one paragraph and the differences in the next.
Block Arrangement (Example)
I. Introduction in which you state your purpose to discuss the similarities and
differences between The Odyssey and the film, O Brother Where Art Thou?
II. Similarities between The Odyssey and the film, O Brother Where Art Thou?



Sirens
Lotus Eaters
Cyclops
III. Differences



Setting
Protagonist
Resolution
IV. Conclusion
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A second way to organize this material is to discuss a specific point about The Odyssey
and immediately following this point with a similarity in O Brother Where Art Thou?
explains specifically how they are alike in some ways and different in others. This called
point-by-point or alternating arrangement. An outline of this organization follows:
Point-by-Point or Alternating Arrangement (five paragraphs)
I. Introduction in which you state your purpose which is to discuss similarities
and differences between The Odyssey and O Brother Where Art Thou?
II. First similarity: Sirens


The Odyssey (half bird women, men never in contact with them)
O Brother (real women who seduce them with liquor to get a reward for turning
them in)
III. Second similarity: Lotus Eaters


OD: Inhabitant of a northern African island who worship and ingest the lotus plant
OB: Fervent members of a religious fellowship who come to a river to be
baptized
IV. Third similarity: Cyclops


OD Polyphemus son of Poseidon eats men b/c he sees O and crew as intruders
OB Big Dan Teague- Bible salesman con man who steals the men's money
V. Conclusion
9
Problem/Solution

This pattern is typically used in persuasive writing, where the writer's general
purpose is to convince the reader to support a certain course of action. This
pattern can be used in expository writing as well. The pattern is designed to
compel the reader to make some kind of change in opinion or behavior by
establishing that a problem exists, then providing a solution. In the problem
section, the writer identifies different aspects of the problem being discussed and
offers evidence of these problems. In the solution section, the writer identifies a
potential solution and supports the effectiveness of this solution over others.
For example, suppose a writer's stated purpose is to persuade his/her readers to ride
bicycles as their primary form of transportation. First, the writer will attempt to establish
that common forms of motorized transportation create compelling problems that require
a solution. Then he/she will show how the proposed solution - riding bikes - provides a
beneficial alternative to driving.
Problem-Solution Example
I. Problem: Motorized Transportation



Increasing traffic congestion
Increasing pollution
Increasing "road rage" from traffic-related stress
II. Solution: Riding Bicycles



Bike riding reduces the number of motorized vehicles in use
Bike riding is not a source of pollution
Bike riding has physical and psychological health benefits
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Advantages/Disadvantages:

This pattern organizes information about a topic by dividing it up into its "good"
and "bad" parts, or pros and cons. It is effective to use when a writer wishes to
objectively discuss both sides of an issue without taking a persuasive stance. As
with the compare-contrast pattern, there are a number of possible variations to
an advantages-disadvantages pattern. The simplest form of this pattern is shown
below.
Suppose, for example, that a writer's stated purpose is to describe the advantages and
disadvantages of attending a two-year college. One way to arrange the information is to
divide it into two main sections, one for the advantages and one for the disadvantages.
In this scenario, the information contained within each main section will represent the
specific topics of analysis (cost, accessibility, etc).
Advantages and Disadvantages (Example)
I. Advantages


Cost
Accessibility
II. Disadvantages


Number of educational programs
Quality of instruction
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Persuasive Writing
Purpose: The primary purpose of persuasive writing is to give an opinion and try to
influence the reader’s way of thinking with supporting evidence
Below are two formats for approaching persuasive writing:
The first and simplest, the classical system, states an argument, supports the argument
with logical and emotional appeals, then acknowledges and refutes counterarguments.
The second approach, the Toulmin system, is much more sophisticated in that it
examines the underlying assumptions (warrants) associated with an argument, while
exploring both sides more thoroughly.
Classical System Example
I. Introduction
Gain readers’ attention and interests




Establish qualifications to write about your topic.
Establish common ground with reader
Demonstrate fairness
State or imply your thesis
II. Background
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
Present any necessary background information, including pertinent personal
narrative
III. Lines of Argument



Present good reasons (including logical and emotional appeals) in support of
your thesis
Generally present reasons in order of importance.
Demonstrate ways your argument may be in readers’ best interest.
IV. Consideration of alternative arguments



Examine alternative points of view.
Note advantages and disadvantages of alternative views
Explain why one view is better than other(s).
V. Conclusion




Summarize the argument
Elaborate on the implication of thesis.
Make clear what you want readers to think or do.
Reinforce your credibility
13
Toulmin System Example
I. Make your claim (a statement that is debatable or controversial).

The federal government should ban smoking.
II. Qualify your claim if necessary.

The ban would be limited to public places.
III. Present good reasons to support your claim.


Smoking causes serious disease in smokers.
Nonsmokers are endangered by others’ smoke.
IV. Explain the warrant (underlying assumptions) that connects your claim and
your reasons. If the warrant is controversial, provide backing for it.



WARRANT: The constitution was established to “promote the general welfare.”
WARRANT: Citizens are entitled to protection from harmful actions by others.
BACKING: The United States is based on a political system that is supposed to
serve the basic needs of its people, including their health.
V. Provide additional grounds to support your claim (facts, statistics, testimony,
and the use of other logical, ethical, or emotional appeals).


STATISTICS: Cite the incidence of deaths attributed to secondhand smoke.
FACTS: Cite lawsuits won recently against large tobacco companies, including
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

one that awarded billions of dollars to states in reparation for smoking-related
health care costs.
FACTS: Cite bans on smoking already imposed in many public institutions and
places of employment – such as Ohio State University and restaurants in
California.
AUTHORITY: Cite the surgeon general and the president.
VI. Acknowledge and respond to possible counter arguments.


COUNTERARGUMENT: Smokers have rights too.
RESPONSE: The suggested ban applies only to public places; smokers would
be free to smoke in private.
VII. Finally, draw a conclusion stated in the strongest way possible.
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(Fun) Examples:
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Narrative Writing
Purpose: Narrative writing refers to a type of writing that tells a story or acts as a
reflection of the author, similar to story form. Typically, narrative writing is considered
somewhat informal and often allows for manipulation of typical conventions and
grammatical structures. It should be noted that narrative essay writing is no longer
evaluated on the PSSA exam in 11th grade.
For each structure, there are several possibilities for detail organization depending on
the topic.
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Chronological Order: arranges information according to a progression of time, either
forward or backward. For example, topics of a historical nature are best organized using
this pattern. When using a chronological pattern, each main section of information
represents a particular period of time, and the sub-points contained within each main
section refer to significant events that occurred within. the time frame. A variation of this
organization pattern could involve dividing a topic into "past-present-future" or "beforeduring-after" segments
o
For example, suppose a writer's stated purpose is to describe the
historical development and evolution of the city of Seattle. Assuming that
Settle is 100 years old, the writer could organize the information by
grouping it into four 25-year chunks. In this case, the sub-points within
each main section of time represent the most significant events that
occurred during that particular time frame. This outline contains four
mutually exclusive and balanced sections of information
Chronological Pattern Example
I. 1900-1920

Significant Event # 1

Significant Event # 2
II. 1920 - 1945

Significant Event # 1

Significant Event # 2
III. 1945 - 1970

Significant Event # 1

Significant Event # 2
IV. 1970 - 1995
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
Significant Event # 1

Significant Event # 2
20
Emphatic Order: Requires one to arrange ideas according to their importance.
Depending on the topic and purpose, one should consider what effect these points may
have upon readers. For instance, one might save the strong point until last, so one can
build arguments to leave readers with the most lasting impression.
In this outline sentences A, B, and C provide support for the topic sentence. The details,
listed under these supporting sentences provide further explanation of the points of
support. The following sample paragraph adheres to this general structure:
Even though I didn't relish the idea of being in New York City, I decided to attend
graduate school there for several important reasons. First of all, Columbia University
allowed individualization in programming. Perhaps most important, I learned on my first
visit to the university that the professor who would be my advisor would allow me to do
much of my work in Rochester and travel to New York only for special meetings. The
university also accepted work I had previously done and applied it to my degree.
Besides the coursework, I knew and respected the two professors who would be my
advisors. Both people have taught and researched in the field for many years. They
have much information to share and I knew I could learn a lot from them. Despite my
reservations about spending time in New York City, I found that once I became familiar
with the part of Manhattan where Columbia is located, I could get around easily. Streets
and avenues run perpendicular to one another, so it was difficult to become lost. When I
became braver, I learned to take the subways as well as the buses instead of taxis and
saved myself a lot of money. Even though at first I had doubts about studying in New
York, it was a good decision.
Topic sentence: Even though I didn't relish the idea of being in New York City, I
decided to attend graduate school there for several important reasons.
A Supporting sentence: Columbia University allowed individualization of programming.
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1.
Detail:
2.
Detail:
I could work in Rochester and travel to New York only for special
meetings.
…accepted work from other programs
B. Supporting sentence: I knew and respected my two advisors.
1.
Both have researched in the field for many years.
Detail:
2.
They had much information to share.
Detail:
3.
I could learn a lot from them.
Detail:
C. Supporting sentence: I found I could get around easily in New York.
1.
Detail:
2.
Detail:
…difficult to become lost because the city streets and avenues are
perpendicular to each other.
I learned to use subways and buses.
Concluding sentence and final thought: Even though at first I had doubts about studying
in New York, it was a good decision.
Notice that there are three statements that support the topic sentence and that each of
these statements has details that explain more completely. Notice also that the topic
sentence and concluding sentence are similar in structure and meaning.
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Spatial Arrangement: Arranges information according to how things fit together in
physical space; i.e., where one thing exists in relation to another. This pattern works
well when a writer wishes to create a mental picture of something which has various
parts distinguished by physical location. Topics involving geography, for example, are
often best organized using a spatial pattern.
o
For example, suppose a writer wishes to describe forms of entertainment
available to tourists visiting Seattle. He/she could arrange information according
to "things to do" in the different districts or geographic locations of the city. Notice
how this patter of organization aids the reader. It makes sense for the writer to
organize the information by physical location because the information is easy to
understand and use in this format, particularly for tourists who are not familiar
with the area.
Spatial Pattern Example
I.
II.
III.
Downtown Waterfront
 Aquarium
 Pike Place Market
Seattle Cleaner
 Space Needle
 Pacific Science Center
University District
 University of Washington
 The “Ave” (shops on University Avenue)
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PRE-WRITING
What is it?
Prewriting is the process of generating and organizing ideas. It is the first step to be
completed in the process of a formal writing assignment. It involves “brainstorming”,
narrowing down and then organizing ideas.
Why prewrite?
Initially, prewriting helps writers to simply generate ideas and get them on paper. It is
helpful to tell students to put all of their ideas down; the more they start with, the more
they will have to work with when they are making decisions on how to narrow down their
thoughts. It gives the student a basis for when he begins to write. It is like planning a
route before a trip.
Brainstorming Techniques: The techniques listed below are meant to have students
quickly identify knowledge and create ideas for essays they are assigned. Many times,
depending on the individual situation, these techniques are quick, easy, and familiar to
most students.
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Cluster Mapping
Purpose: Identifying ideas, themes, concepts related to a particular topic
Procedure: Create circle in the center of the page and write the main idea or subject in
the center of the circle. In a web-like format write as many any ideas that relate to the
main topic or subject. Often times, students will continue to create circles and lines as
they think of ideas and related examples to their topic. This can be augmented in order
to accommodate any area of study as well as serve as the basis of a simplistic outline
when the writer is ready to move on to the next state of the writing process.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sequence Mapping
Purpose: Plot events in chronological order
Procedure: Write the sequence of events in a story, procedure, or event in
chronological order or order if importance. This type of outlining proves especially
effective when students are studying or attempting to explain how or why something
works, and particularly lends itself to those disciplines more closely associated with
math and science. However, this tactic can be equally useful in the humanities (History,
Social Studies, Arts) when charting the progression of historic events, artistic trends, or
even the progression of a narrative.
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Quickwrite/Freewrite
Purpose: Activate prior knowledge, make predictions about a topic, and make
connections
Procedure: Students write about a particular prompt without stopping for a
predetermined amount of time. This techniques works particularly well with those
students who "don't have anything to write about." More often than not, they do;
however, some students find it difficult to focus on the specifics of an assignment or
prompt without first listing what they know and then organizing whether or not
information is relevant. By having students write out everything they DO know about a
topic, they may put ideas on paper they did not realize were relevant from the start.
Check out the example below:
Topic: The Dentist
I hate going to the dentist. I'm always afraid that they're going to hurt me, and I'm not very good at pain, at tolerating
pain, I mean. I remember the first time, when I was a kid, going to the dentists, it seemed I never went to the dentist
when I was a kid until I had a toothache, that's my parents fault, isn't it, I guess. They should have taken better care
of my teeth when I was little, and then I wouldn't have so much grief now with my teeth. But back then I would go to
the dentists and he would have this godawful drill that would make this awful noise and it seemed like it always hurt. I
remember there was this sign in his office that said PAINLESS DENTIST, UPSTAIRS, but there was no upstairs in
his building. Some joke, huh? I can't think of anything to say, and I can't think of anything more to say. Oh, I wonder
how come anyone in his right might mind would ever want to become a dentist, putting his fingers into other people's
mouths all day, all that spit and blood and not there's the fear of getting AIDS from your clients that they have to wear
those rubber gloves and I hate the feel of those things in my mouth, too, and the sound of that thing that draws the
spit out of your mouth. I wonder why my folks didn't take me to the dentist BEFORE i had trouble. Probably because
when they were growing up it was bad times and they didn't have any money for things like the dentist and it was just
taken for granted that you were going to get cavities and lose a lot of teeth before you were even an adult. I can't
think of anything more to say. I can't think of anything more to say. all I know is that when I have kids, they're going to
the dentist every six months whether they want to or not and maybe by then they'll have invented some way to
absolutely prevent cavities and maybe there won't even be any dentists or if there are it'll just be to clean your teeth
and make sure they're straight and pearly white and we won't worry about cavities and stuff like that that causes pain
anymore. DENTISTS, MY ATTITUDE HAS CHANGED AS I GOT OLDER.
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KWL Chart
Purpose: Allows students to track and reflect on the knowledge they possess before
the lesson/activity, what they are learning while the lesson is in progress and what they
learned at the completion of the process.
Procedure: A KWL chart allows students to achieve multiple tasks in one place by
organizing the learning process (of writing or practically anything else) into three distinct
columns (see chart below).



The K (or knowledge) column allows students to identify prior knowledge that
may be relevant to the topic of study about a topic
Once they have organized what they already know about a subject, students are
encouraged to reflect on what they want to know or discover during the lesson or
activity. This is displayed in the W or Want column.
After students have participated in the activity, they are encouraged to document
what they have learned in the final column (L) in order to complete a picture of
their learning process.
When completed, this type of graphic organizer allows students to apply their prior
knowledge to what they have learned.
27
Venn Diagram
Purpose: Visually depict similarities and differences between two concepts, objects,
characters, settings, elements etc.
Procedure: A Venn diagram is a great way to utilize students' spatiall organization
skills. On a piece of paper (or pre-printed handout) students create two overlapping
circles with a distinctive label for each topic of the state comparison. In one circle,
students should list the characteristic of the first topic/item to compare, and follow with
the second. In the space that is created where the circles overlap, students should fill in
any characteristics or traits that the subject shares. After the diagram has been
completed, students are able to clearly differentiate between the characteristics of each
item as well as the similarities they share.
28
Journal Writing
Journal writing is a technique that, at times, can be considered time consuming, but at
the same time often produces results in writing that are much more detailed. The
technique itself can be used in a number of ways, and each instructor should determine
the how to use it based on the expectations of the assignment. Typically, students will
write (either freely or directed) on a topic that relates to a specific experience, feeling, or
reaction in an informal manner. Often times, again - depending on the class/assignment
- there will be multiple entries which students can later reflect upon for discussion and
eventually writing. Listed below are journal writing techniques that are effective for
vastly different purposes. Again, it is at the discretion of the instructor to modify each in
order to fit individual lessons and/or curriculum.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
29
Reaction-based Journals
A reaction-based journal is assigned to a student in order to capture their thoughts and
feelings about a certain event or topic that they a) have prior knowledge of or b) that
they have recently learned about or experienced. These journals are often opinionated
in nature and cause the author to reflect upon how the topic affects them personally,
often lending the writing to persuasion. These journals can be conducted as stand-alone
topics, or they can be created as a series of prompts that follow or revolve around a
singular topic that creates a larger, more inclusive subject.
Below is an example of a reaction-based journal that is given to 11th Grade Academic
students as they read through The Catcher in the Rye. Note that the prompt asks
students to both react to the events of the novel as well as recount their own
experiences with a similar event from their own lives.

Throughout the novel, much of Holden’s attitude and experiences can be traced
back to the death of his younger brother, Allie. Using specific examples from the
novel, illustrate how Allie’s death affects Holden. Next describe your own feelings
associated with death or an encounter that you have had with death in your own
life. How do your feelings compare to those of Holden?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Double-Entry Journals
Purpose: Reflect on cause and effect, problems and solutions, comparisons and
contrasts and differing interpretations.
Procedure: Create two columns on a page. In the left-hand column, take notes on the
material you’re reading, or write quotations from the text. The notes can be highly
focused (specific information on a given prompt) or free (anything that captures your
interest). The right-hand column is for your response to the quotes or notes given in the
left-hand column. The response should be written as a running dialogue that allows you
to reflect on the text in a way that has meaning for you.
Students can use a double-entry journal to help them study concepts or vocabulary,
express opinions, justify an opinion using text, and understand or respond to the text
they are reading. The double-entry journal is a two-column journal. In the left column,
students write a piece of information from the text, such as a quotation or a concept,
which students want to expand upon, understand better, or question. In the right
column, students relate to or analyze the information that is written in the left column.
For example, the student could title the left column "Quotes" and the right column
"Reflections." In this instance, the student would copy quotes from the text in the left
column and reflect upon what they mean in the right column.
The example of the following page illustrates how a language arts teacher who is
teaching Walden, by Henry David Thoreau, could utilize a double-entry journal.
30
Double-Entry Journal for Walden by Henry David Thoreau
Quotations
"To be awake is to be alive." (from the
chapter "Where I Lived and What I
Lived For"
Reflections
I think that you can go though your whole life
asleep if you don't stop and think about what
you're doing. It's important to make conscious
choices, especially when you're my age.
"I should not talk so much about myself
if there were anybody else whom I
knew as well. Unfortunately, I am
confined to this by the narrowness of
my experience." (from the chapter
"Economy")
I disagree with what Thoreau says here. I think
that you can know another person as well as
you know yourself. I know my best friend as
well as I know myself. Sometimes, I don't think
I know myself well at all.
"Say what you have to say, not what
you ought. Any truth is better than
make-believe." (from the Conclusion)
Sometimes it is difficult to tell the truth because
you don't want to hurt a person's feelings or
because it's hard for you to admit something. It
was hard for me to tell my dad that I didn't want
to go to the same college he did, but I was glad
that I told him afterwards.
Double-entry journals give students a way to interact personally with the text, by
reflecting on and writing about their understanding of the material they are reading.
Students can use the text to form an opinion and then use pieces of text to support their
opinions. Students process the information and relate to the text, increasing reading
comprehension.
Double-entry journals can be used effectively for expression or for more concrete
purposes. For example, if students are reading material in class that they can personally
react to, then they can use the double-entry journal to express their feelings and
opinions about the material. On the other hand, students may need to learn specific
information such as new vocabulary words or historical events. In this instance,
students can use the double-entry journal as a study guide.
Have students draw a line down the center of a piece of paper to make two columns.
Model the use of a double-entry journal with the class by displaying one on the board.
First, show students how to use the double-entry journal in an expressive way. Think
about a topic you are currently teaching that students can respond to personally or ask
questions about. For example, if you are teaching a unit on abolition and the Civil War,
in the left column write some interesting quotes or the names of some of the significant
people who lived during that time. Brainstorm with students thoughts or reflections they
have about the quotes or the people, and write students' comments in the right column.
Discuss their thoughts and explain how reflecting in writing can help them consider
31
Thesis Statements
Thesis Statement: The most simplistic definition of a thesis statement is typically
explained as the TOPIC + YOUR OPINION. Taking this analogy a bit further, a thesis is
probably best described with the following definition: a thesis statement clearly
expresses the author's opinion on a specific topic and can be argued and
supported with ample textual evidence. Every essay that you write requires a thesis
statement.



A thesis statement is typically the last sentence in the introduction, and the first
sentence of the conclusion.
Good writing practice dictates that these statements not be identical, if at all
possible. Instead, their wording should vary, if not only to break up the idea of
repetition throughout the essay, but to reflect the evidence that has been used to
prove it throughout.
The best thesis statements are typically compound-complex sentences which
provide very specific detail about the subject and the idea that will be proven
throughout the piece.
Most essays up until and including the PSSAs provide prompts or writing questions that
students can respond to in order to formulate a thesis. However, moving beyond the
PSSA and into college level writing, most students are expected to formulate their own
thesis statements based on a particular topic. This can be troublesome for some
students.
Creating an effective thesis statement
If you are having trouble creating a thesis statement that is a reflection of your topic
(book), try a few of the following. These tips may help you:





Pre-writing is always a good way to determine your choices when it comes to
topics to write about. If you are having trouble thinking of a topic, try and make a
list of all the themes or major ideas that you remember from your novel.
Once you have some of these things written down, try and determine if any of
these ideas overlap, and group them together.
Next, once you choose an idea that you feel comfortable with, try and make it
into an argumentative sentence.
Once you have created a workable idea in sentence form, attempt to add detail
and specifics in order to truly flesh out the idea.
Check the example below if you need help.
32
Book: The Great Gatsby
Ideas/Themes - illegal bootlegging, the American Dream, the American Nightmare,
failure, adultery, alcohol, the 1920s, the Valley of Ashes, romantic idealism, false
promises,
Thesis Statement: First Attempt - The Great Gatsby attempts to portray the idea of the
American Dream as a possibility that no longer exists in society.
Thesis Statement: Second Attempt - Even though The Great Gatsby is often
considered a classic among American novels, it attempts to portray the idea of the
American Dream as a possibility that no longer exists in society.
Final thesis statement: Despite its place in American Literature as a novel that so
perfectly depicts the American Dream, The Great Gatsby’s conclusion forces the
reader to question the validity of hopes, dreams, and the promise of success that
American culture continues to promote in today’s society.
33
Topic Sentence Writing
A topic sentence is typically the first sentence in a paragraph that has a dual purpose.
First, it ties the content of the paragraph back to the thesis statement of the paper.
Therefore, the sentence acts as a signpost or extension of the paper's primary topic.
Additionally, the sentence serves to provide a clue as to the content of the actual
paragraph.
Topic Sentence: Setting in The Great Gatsby plays a significant role in the overall
scope of the novel that directly relates to Fitzgerald's commentary on class
division.
Now, look how this particular sentence impacts the understanding of the full paragraph
below:
Setting in The Great Gatsby plays a significant role in the overall scope of the
novel that directly relates to Fitzgerald's commentary on class division. Fitzgerald
carefully centers his characters, their lives, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs as
dependent upon where they live. Each of the three primary locales throughout the novel
is described with the utmost care, because, as the plot is revealed, it is evident that
much of the conflict develops from the inequality inherent within these settings. For
instance, Jay Gatsby’s seeming inclination for wild parties, utter disregard for social
graces, and as is eventually revealed, his lack of social sophistication are all intrinsic of
those who reside in West Egg. Fitzgerald even goes as far as to include the architecture
of Gatsby’s house as an indication of its owner’s behavior: “…it was a factual imitation
of some Hotel de Ville in Normandy, with a tower on one side, spanking new under a
thin beard of raw ivy, and marble swimming and more than forty acres of lawn and
garden” (Fitzgerald 9). Its wildly unconventional architecture seems to indicate the
character’s showiness or pretentiousness with which many of his guests often associate
him. In contrast, the Buchanans, whose gorgeous and picturesque home is wrought
with prim and proper etiquette and an atmosphere of stuffy superiority, which is equally
reflected in Tom himself, is characteristic of the “old money” who reside in East Egg:
Their house was even more elaborate than I expected, a cheerful red and white
Georgian Colonial mansion overlooking the bay. The lawn started at the beach and ran
toward the front door for a quarter of a mile, jumping over sundials and brick walls and
burning gardens – finally when it reached the house drifting up the side in bright vines
as though from the momentum of its run. The front was broken by a line of French
windows, glowing now with reflected gold, and wide open to the warm and windy
afternoon...(Fitzgerald 11).
Tom’s constant bantering about his self-importance and his proclivity toward self34
indulgence (Myrtle) set the standard that East Eggers clearly view themselves above
the rest of the Long Island population, more than likely as a result their possessions
through inheritance. Finally, the Valley of Ashes is the other locale which Fitzgerald
gives attention to throughout the novel. Unlike the fashionable locales of the “Eggs,”
The Valley of Ashes, as described on a visit to Wilson’s repair shop, is akin to a
wasteland riddled with failure that has taken the form of decay and grime: “…a fantastic
place where ashes grow like wheat into ridges and hills and grotesque gardens, where
ashes take the form of houses and chimneys and rising smoke and finally…of men who
move dimly and already crumbling through the powdery air (Fitzgerald 27). Fitzgerald
furthers this image of a “crumbling man” in his characterization of Tom Wilson, a man
who has been broken by the harsh realities of life. His vacuous existence and later, his
utter hopelessness following his wife’s murder leave him as man broken down by his life
and ultimately, his surroundings.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Note: The topic sentence clearly indicates that the content of the paragraph will
discuss setting in The Great Gatsby
1. potentially give specific examples of setting
2. discuss or suggest how these settings create meaning through Fitzgerald's text
35
Supporting Evidence

A typical English assignment is for the student to compose an essay supporting
(or discussing) the presence of a theme in a novel, play or poem. Here we will go
step-by-step in constructing such a paper using the ninth-grade text All Quiet on
the Western Front.
Prompt: In a well-constructed essay of at least four paragraphs, discuss how
Erich Remarque develops a theme in All Quiet on the Western Front.

Before I write anything, I have to decide what I’m writing about. Obviously, the
teacher has told me the novel I am to analyze and that I need to explain a theme.
But which theme and how? Most quality novels, plays, etc. have more than one
theme (sometimes called a motif). Looking at my notes from class, I see we have
identified numerous themes, such as man’s inhumanity to man; loss of identity;
the romanticism of war; the dehumanization of soldiers; comradeship and loss of
innocence. I may not understand all these themes, but I don’t need to. I just need
to get one and be able to explain why I consider it to be a theme. Looking at my
notes, I see the idea of loss of innocence most clearly so I select that.

So, I have my topic, but it would help if I had an organized manner to go about
discussing it. Why do I (and the class) think this is a theme? Well, from my notes
I see that the author often refers to the soldiers in terms (diction) and with images
associated with children (children are good examples of innocence). He also
uses symbols to help illustrate ideas of innocence and frequently contrasts
images of innocence with images of the horrible experience of war
(juxtaposition).

My introduction will be short and will DEFINITELY ANSWER the prompt. It will be
abstract (general) enough to require proof and evidence in the body, but not so
concrete and narrow that it contains actual specifics from the book.
36
POOR: Erich Remarque created many themes in his book All Quiet on the Western
Front.
GOOD: Through the use of concrete diction, juxtaposition and symbolism, Erich
Remarque develops the theme of loss of innocence in All Quiet on the Western Front.

With the second example, we have identified the author, the title AND answered
the prompt AND set up a structure for our essay. There will be three body
paragraphs: one dealing with specific examples of diction, one with examples of
juxtaposition and another with an example of symbolism. We finish with a
conclusion and we’re done.

To create good body paragraphs I’ll need to refer to my notes and graphic
organizers (charts, diagrams, etc.) that I’ve taken while reading the book and
participating in class. I find my topic of innocence lost receives lots of attention in
chapters three and four. I have descriptions of soldiers acting like little children
and quotes which actually label them as innocent kids. I will NOT likely use the
entire quoted sentence(s), but just the little bits that are important to my topic. I’ll
be discussing my topic while embedding specific examples from the novel which
I’ll put in quotations and cite a page number in order to support my claims. The
following are two sample paragraphs, the brackets in the second example help
explain what makes it a good paragraph.
POOR: The veteran soldiers have names for the new guys. “Seen the infants?” (35).
The reinforcements are a lot like babies “Tjaden wets his bed, he does it at night in his
sleep” (45). Other guys cry and even mess their pants. Eventually the recruits must lose
their innocence some way.
The previous paragraph has some specifics, but the quotes are NOT embedded
and we have little explanation as to why those quotes should even be considered
significant.
GOOD: Barely 20 years-old [a specific age, showing the youth of what is
considered a veteran] himself, Albert Kropp [a specific character] calls the new
soldiers “infants” (35).
37

This metaphor [since he directly compared the new guys to infants] fits the
reinforcements perfectly [my opinion] because they are practically helpless,
young people, completely innocent to the horrors of war [explains the important
attributes of the “infants” [metaphor]. When the reinforcement first experiences
war, he acts like the infant he still is inside. Some new guys “wet [the] bed” (45),
others mess their pants (62) and cry [direct and indirect examples of childish
actions]. One soldier acts like a petrified [my opinion] “child [who] creeps under
[Baumer’s] arm, his head close to the breast” (61). [This embedded quote
shows the importance of the innocence – the new recruits are defenseless
and the veterans, who’ve lost their innocence, must act like parents].
Finally, this “child” is ripped by a shell from the protective embrace to become
“one screaming bundle of pain” (72). [This embedded quote shows the
horrifying consequences of exposing innocence to warfare]. With his
fatherly knowledge, Kat laments the awful fate of the “young innocents” (73)
before returning to the reality of war. [This shows that to survive a soldier
must either lose his innocence or his life to war].

I’ve now given concrete, specific examples of how the author’s diction
contributed to creating a theme of innocence lost. I elaborated somewhat on
them to demonstrate why they were selected and the significance of the theme to
understanding the book as a whole. In order to start a new paragraph, I should
have some sort of transition. Since I did not build one into the end of that
paragraph, I’ll need to start my third paragraph with one by referring back to the
end of this one. I’ll also mention the focus of the third paragraph (juxtaposing) as
I’m following the order of topics I set down in the introduction.
GOOD: The ultimate reality of war is death. Remarque juxtaposes where innocent
children should be in a civilized world with where they are headed in a world at war.
Chapter six begins with images of death contrasted with those of youth and civilized life:
“Stacked up against [the school house’s] longer side is a high double wall of yellow,
unpolished, brand-new coffins” (99). [I need to explain why these images are
meaningful:]. A symbol of death, the coffins are something new and stable compared
to the “shelled school-house” (99). By placing these images next to each other,
Remarque reminds the reader that these soldiers should still be students –
innocent, naïve and hopeful. However, the abstract truths and theories of schools
have been destroyed by the cold, concrete reality of war.

I still need to speak of more directly of symbols, the third part of my introduction.
In my notes I have lots of stuff about the butterfly-and-skull scene (the one that
ends the original movie). My transition will be that I will be taking them from the
same chapter of the book, and that the symbol shows the drastic change these
boys have endured.
38
GOOD: Later in the same chapter [transition element], former student [another
connection emphasized] Baumer notices two “brimstone-butterflies, with red spots on
their yellow wings…they settle on the teeth of a skull” (127). [Now I need to explain
and elaborate on why these things are symbolic]. A symbol of innocence, these
butterflies have entered the realm of death, since there is “not a flower for miles” (127).
The Greek word for butterfly is psyche, another word for the human spirit. By combining
these apparently opposite images [often a function of good juxtaposition],
Remarque has symbolized in one image what has happened to these young men. The
skull can even be viewed as an image of a chrysalis. Like the butterfly, these boys have
endured a metamorphosis and the innocent, safe world has been replaced by one of fire
and “brimstone.” Their wings, yellow like the coffins, have been spotted blood “red” as
the soldiers have come to be comfortable with “skull[s]” and death.

Now, that little paragraph does NOT state that this interpretation of symbols is
the only one, nor even the best. Entire essays have been written just critiquing
that one scene. I just used some important images and created an interpretation
that advanced my thesis on the importance of innocence lost. The three main
points of the introduction have all been examined and all we need now is a
conclusion that will apply what we learned to a new, maybe better, understanding
of the book or life in generally.
SUCH AS: From a naïve view of the world and war, these boys have lost their
innocence in the experience of the Western Front. This painful loss of innocence led to
a lost generation that could only be eased by various escapes from life. Like the
butterfly, these soldiers only find rest from their tortured flight by resting, eventually, in
death.
39
Purpose, Audience and Tone
Purpose: Purpose simply refers to the reason the author writes the piece. The idea of
purpose is closely related to the concept of exigency. Understanding “exigency” is
essential because without it we cannot effectively determine purpose:

In a word, exigency is a problem, a defect, a challenge out there in the real world
that compels people to communicate. Sometimes these problems are economic:
the shortage of financial aid for students, the lack of money for necessities of life,
the unwise manner in which tax dollars are spent by our government. Other times
the defects are political: bickering over a recycling program among factions on
the city council, a quarrel between members of a union over whether or not to
strike. Sometimes the challenges are social: the deportation to immigrants, the
treatment of people with racial, ethnic, or physical differences. Sometimes the
flaws are personal: the need to vent anger about a casual remark that was taken
as an insult, the desire to establish or maintain friendly ties with acquaintances or
co-workers or family (please note that not all exigencies are negative; in reality,
many are positive), the need to relieve feelings of pain caused by the breakdown
of a long-term relationship. In all these cases (and many more in our everyday
lives), circumstances exist that call out for us to communicate with others.

Exigency consists of the circumstances that necessitate communication. For
example, if you fall down the cellar stairs and lie at the bottom screaming for
help, then exigency is easy to understand: you have fallen, and you can't get up.
Those are "the circumstances that necessitate communication." Here is another
example. You buy your Aunt Louise a scanner for her birthday so she can
monitor all the emergency and police radio activity in her neighborhood, but she
says the programming directions are too complicated and she gives the scanner
back to you. When you try to program it for Auntie, you discover she's right. So
you write the manufacturer to complain about their programming instructions.
Those are "the circumstances that necessitate communication."
Note that purpose in general is much more specific, but should fall into one of the
following categories:




Expository: the author intends to inform, explain, describe or define their subject
Persuasive: the author intends to prove a point and convince his audience to
move to action
Narrative: the author intends to tell a story
Creative: the author has a personal and creative purpose of his own
40
Audience: Audience refers the individuals for whom the author is writing. Different
audience types often require different approaches to topics. For instance, if an author is
writing for academia, he may be more inclined to use words associated with Bloom's
taxonomy and educational jargon in order to relate to his audience better. However, if
the author is writing for students, he may choose to use words that are simpler and
more accessible to be sure that his message is understood.
For the most part, students will assume the audience of their piece to be a teacher
(writing in academic style); however, this need not always be the case. An instructor can
easily manipulate the tone of a student's piece by having the student write with a
specific audience in mind, such as:
· A letter to the editor
· A school or public newspaper piece
· A magazine focused on entertainment, politics or social issues
- and many more...
Often times, a specific direction of audience can make all of the difference in how a
piece of writing is perceived.
41
Tone: Tone typically refers to the attitude conveyed toward the author's audience and
subject matter. Therefore, the author's purpose should dictate his audience and tone.
Options in Tone:
Once an author has chosen a purpose and either a real or potential audience, the
proper tone can be decided. Much like a person speaks differently around friends than
around grandparents, a reading audience requires a similar decision. The following is a
basic list of various tonal designations an author may use depending on both purpose
and audience.
informal
formal
light, humorous, comic serious, grave, decorous
personal, subjective
objective, impersonal
casual, offhanded
impassioned
"loose," rambunctious reasoned, reasonable
zany, experimental
controlled, reserved
plainspoken, simple
ornate, elaborate
42
Refutation and Counter-Arguments
Purpose: The object of persuasive essay writing is to convince the reader of a specific
idea or point of view established by the author. This is done by offering specific details
and arguments in support of the established thesis statement. However, in addition to
simply offering support to the thesis, it is also effective to address and refute a counterargument to that of the established thesis. This is often accomplished in a separate
paragraph specifically pointing out flaws or weaknesses in opposing arguments. By
addressing an opposition's argument, a writer can win the audience's respect and
sometimes their agreement.
Acknowledge the opposition's viewpoint.
The writer summarizes the opposition's viewpoint openly and honestly. Ignoring the
opposition is futile in that the audience is aware of the opposing arguments and will
doubt the credibility of a presentation that chooses to ignore the opposition rather
than deal with it.
Accept all or part of the objections of the opposition and include these in the
argument.
The writer acknowledges the opposition's claims in his argument, and still shows that
his own claims are the stronger. The strength of the writer's claims are more
convincing than the opposing viewpoints. A writer might explain the opposition's
weakest points, contrasting them with his argument's strongest points.
Refute or explicitly oppose the claims of the opposite viewpoint.
The writer refutes the opposition's claims showing they are incorrect or
inconsequential--not a real problem.
43
Example:
After reading and viewing excerpts from Kurt Vonnegut's Slaughterhouse-Five, students
are given the following prompt for a persuasive essay:
Prompt: Despite the fact that the time of the Second World War has passed, many still
debate the importance and the motives behind the Dresden bombing that occurred
during the final years of conflict. Taking into account Vonnegut's novel, his own
experiences as a soldier, and the brief research you completed with regard to the
Dresden bombing, was the attack on Dresden an action that was justified and
acceptable, or an error in judgment influenced by factors outside of those of the
immediate threat of the German armed forces?



Typically, a student would approach this assignment with an opinion already in
mind after working in class with the idea over the past week. They would write a
thesis statement that reflects this idea:
o Even though the bombing of Dresden resulted in the deaths of hundereds
of innocent civilians, the attack signaled a significant turn in the tide of the
war for its destruction of a revered German city which also acted as a
military stronghold, and it assisted in the destruction of German morale
which helped to end the war.
Note that the text in red acknowledges why the bombing was something
negative, yet the point of the thesis is to stress the positive outcomes of the
actual attack.
The student would then essentially structure the essay as follows:
o I. Introduction
 Thesis
o II. Supporting Point 1*
o III. Supporting Point 2*
o IV. Refutation/Counter-argument
o Conclusion
 Thesis
44
Annotation
What is annotation? How do I annotate something?
Annotation is defined as a critical explanatory note or body of notes added to a text.
Annotation is a tool that can be useful to students of all levels. Annotation can also be
referred to as "active reading" and typically includes any or all of the following:





highlighting
underlining
note taking
personal reflection
defining
45
In order to correctly annotate a work in order that it best reflects a specifically assigned
task, students should typically aim to answer the following questions in order to gain the
best understanding possible. These questions, or at least posing them often helps the
reader the think more directly about what they are reading and the significance of the
piece itself, regardless of the use or implication.
Author:

Who is the author? What can you discern about (or have previous knowledge
pertaining to) his/her background)? What is the author’s purpose? Is the purpose
clearly stated in the work, or is it implied through language and examples.
Audience:

To what audience is the author writing? (scholars? Teachers? Young adults? The
general public?)
Author Bias


Does the author exhibit any bias or make assumptions that directly affect how
the article/work is presented? What are they?
How does the author prove or back up his statements? Is there concrete proof
with cited sources, or are they speculative and based solely on observation?
Conclusions:




What conclusions (stated or implied) does the author draw?
Are the conclusions justified from research or experience?
Are the conclusions in sync with the original purpose of the research and
supported by the data?
Are the conclusions skewed by bias? If so, how?
Relationship to other works:

How does this work compare with others cited? Does it conflict with conventional
wisdom, established scholarship, government policy, etc.? Are there specific
studies or writings cited with which this one agrees or disagrees? Are there any
opinions not cited of which readers should be aware? Is the evidence balanced
or weighted in favor of a particular perspective?
46
Time frame

Is the work current? Is this important? How does the time in which it was written
reflect on the information contained in this work?
Qualifying Statements: Qualifying statements are predominantly present throughout
persuasive essays in which they serve as the author's intent to both agree and disagree
with aspects of a proposed question or statement. In essence, these ideas present both
sides of the argument, typically citing the reasons both for and against the argument.
Therefore, no definitive stance is taken on the subject, but instead a more complex and
specific argument debating both opportunities of resolution, essentially leaving the
reader to take away the best point of the paper. For instance, consider the following
prompt as issued to students in an 11th grade AP Language and Composition class:
Thoreau’s Civil Disobedience stresses the importance and credibility of man’s
conscience over government authority. In his essay he clearly indicates that, in his view,
government is an "expedient" and that people could get by with a government that steps
completely out of the way.
Using appropriate evidence from the essay and from your own experience agree,
disagree, or qualify Thoreau’s viewpoint.
The above prompt is an argumentative essay in which students are asked to take a
specific stance on the statement (by agreeing or disagreeing) at what it stated. In
addition to this, students are also given the opportunity to "qualify" their view on the
subject. If a student chooses to qualify this statement they would (hypothetically) argue
by:
o
o
o
identifying the specific meaning of the claim
 clearly restating the stance of the author
 constructing a thesis statement which indicates the writer's noncommittal stance using "qualifier" words
 ex. - Thoreau's argument that government's lack of impact
on man's independence is necessary and valid in intent, but
has its drawbacks in conducting a society where man has
the expectation to be both productive and fairly treated.
breakdown of the positives (agreement) of the stance
 positives of reasoning (man is independent by nature)
 examples
 no resolute
 transition to negative
breakdown of the negatives (disagreement) of the stance (man's survival
is dependent on regulation of resources, land and law)
 negatives of reasoning
 examples
47


o
no resolute
transition to restatement of thesis
restatement of thesis
 recall examples
 closing statement
48
Quoting from Sources:
Many times, teachers will require a student to reference or "quote" specific sources
when writing an essay about a specific topic. Supporting a paper with outside sources
often gives arguments greater credibility as well as providing additional support.
However, there are specific ways in which secondary information should be used within
the context of a piece of writing.
Before using a specific quotation, be sure that its use is justified and that that source
itself is credible and adds to the argument(s)
Questions to ask before selecting a quote for inclusion in the paper:
1. Will the quote say something that I could not say by paraphrasing?
2. How does this quote support the topic sentence?
Embedding is a term that refers to how a quote from an outside source is placed
seamlessly into an existing text. Often times, inexperienced writers will include the new
information without tying it to an existing sentence. This is incorrect and often referred to
as a "floating quote." When attempting to include quoted material into an existing essay,
remember the following:
1. A quote is NOT a stand alone sentence.
2. Introduce the quote

Identify the person quoted as well as his/her position (use a comma)
o Example: Charles Baker, a teacher in the Abington School District, states,
“Three years of increasing success later, I have come to understand just
49
how important an informed and disciplined instructional ‘scaffold’ is to
effective teaching.”

the person being quoted, and the reason (use a colon).
o Example: College football player Bill Gertson, who was diagnosed with
three concussions in high school, summed up the problem: “Football
players are told to ignore hurts and get out there again as soon as you can
for the good of the team.”

give the context of the quote (use a comma or a colon).
o Example: During the scene in chapter 16 when Hester meets
Dimmesdale, Hawthorne writes, “The sportive sunlight…withdrew itself as
they came nigh,” establishing the bleak setting that frames the encounter.
50
Embedding Quotations
When writing an essay that requires evidence in order to prove an argument using an
outside source, you must properly embed the information within a sentence.
Example #1:
According to Holden, "Ackley was one of these very, very tall round shouldered guys he was about six four - with lousy teeth" (Salinger 19).
Note the introductory phrase that introduces the quote. This is important because it
places what is being repeated from the novel in context, so that the reader is able
understand and grasp the point the writer (you) are trying to make. Now take a look at
the quote within the context of the paragraph:
Holden's inferiority complex is played out in a manner which makes him feel superior to
those he comes in contact with on a regular basis. His next door neighbor, Ackley, is
often the target of Holden's criticisms regardless of the fact that Ackley himself is
relatively harmless and often poses no immediate threat to Holden's introverted view of
the world. Even Holden's description of Ackley is laden with criticism. According to
Holden, "Ackley was one of these very, very tall round shouldered guys - he was about
six four - with lousy teeth" (Salinger 19). This detracting and overtly negative
introduction of the character clearly communicates his distaste for his neighbor;
however, it will only be a few hours until Holden turns to his disreputable neighbors in a
last ditch effort to save his sanity prior to embarking on his journey of independent selfdiscovery.
The goal is to integrate the outside information seamlessly into the paragraph. This way
there isn't a jarring disruption of thought as the reader attempts to understand your
point.
Another important point with regard to embedding quotation marks is the idea of verb
variety. Essentially this promoted the idea that a variety of verbs should be used to
introduce quotes. Typically students use the word says or said (repeatedly) to introduce
quotes. While these words are completely acceptable, they do become repetitive and
often tedious if used often enough.
Depending on the type of essay that you are writing and the content that you are
dealing with, consider the following verb choices in lieu of the traditional "says" or "said":
- states - argues - implies - discusses - illustrates - insinuates - explains - replies points out - reveals - describes - debates - disputes - reviews
51
Example #2: Another (and less skillful option) to incorporate quoted material into
writing is through the use of a colon (:). The use of a colon typically requires the
writer to use a complete sentence as an introduction, which is then separated by
colon before beginning the quoted material.
Holden often projects his negativity onto all other characters he encounters
throughout the novel like Ackley: According to Holden, "Ackley was one of these
very, very tall round shouldered guys - he was about six four - with lousy teeth"
(Salinger 19).
This technique is not necessarily considered "embedding" and should be reserved
for situations that are more scientific in nature, or those which require an extended
explanation of the cited material in question.
52
Anecdotes
What is an anecdote?
Anecdotes are short stories that are embedded in an essay or article. An anecdote is
a type of support, or exemplification, for the generalizations in a piece of writing.
Anecdotes help the writer prove his/her point. Anecdotes can also give writing more
depth and voice.
The anecdote must have a clear connection to the thesis. The writer cannot just tell
a random story. For example if a prompt asks the writer to discuss the importance of
high school co-curricular activities, the writer might relate your own story:
I never took school that seriously, but when I made the varsity football team, I
realized that I had to keep my grades up to continue to start on Friday nights. That
meant reporting to study hall on Wednesday nights, doing homework on time, and
working with a chem. tutor. Without that I incentive I would never have made it to
college.
53
Criticism
Defined: In terms of the discipline of English, Criticism often refers to Literary Criticism
or articles typically written by professors or scholars that pose and prove complex thesis
statements about a work of writing. These works are typically complex in nature and can
span anywhere from a 3-page article to small self-contained publications.
Use: Often times, assignments will require students to create and prove their own thesis
about a work that require the support from outside sources. In a student essay, the
writer must use choice quotes or theories from these essays to support their own
thoughts on the subject matter.
Location: The UPHS Library subscribes to various databases that provide access to
numerous critical essays and articles as part of a simplistic search driven database. By
gathering these resources into one cohesive database, the ease of locating an article on
a specific topic, novel, or author becomes much simpler than searching through a
traditional card catalog or individual articles. The databases listed on the following
pages are available through the UPHS library and/or on network capable computers:
54
Gale Database
Below is an excerpt from an article that serves as an example of Literary Criticism. Note
the elevated diction and the author's thesis in her attempt to prove his point.
Society vs. the Individual in Arthur Miller's The Crucible
The Crucible presents us with the picture of a small village falling prey to a collective
fear that witchcraft is about, lurking in some of its citizens. A specialist in demonology,
the revered Hale, is summoned to seek out the devil and a court of justice is set up to
root out the evil by hanging witches. The play constantly shifts between two related
poles: the individuals must be purged separately so that the community as a whole may
be preserved. We then may wonder whether the play is about an individual's discovery
of his true self or about a whole community getting out of hand. As Northrop Frye has
pointed out, The Crucible has the 'content' of 'social hysteria' but the 'form' of a
'purgatorial or triumphant tragedy'.1 Arthur Miller himself is of no help for the critic in this
matter since he has made two entirely contradictory statements on the subject. In the
preface to his Collected Plays he wrote: 'The central impulse for writing at all was not
the social but the interior psychological question of the guilt residing in Salem',2 and, a
few years later, in his interview with Richard I. Evans he said that '... the predominant
emphasis in writing the play was on the conflict between people rather than the conflict
within somebody' (3).
As Miller's statements clearly show, it is quite difficult to situate the play in a fixed
traditional pattern: is it tragic drama involving a hero confronting more than human
forces, or drama involving a whole group of people? Miller's play seems in fact to
straddle both types and it would be hard to draw a clear line between the two. I shall
endeavor here to analyze this fundamental duality in The Crucible, and show that the
play is highly successful though not easily classified within the traditional categories of
drama.
That The Crucible is a play about the individual and society is obvious if only by the
wide scope of characters presented to the audience: they range from farmers and
maids to ministers and court-officials. There are twenty-one characters in all, not to
mention the people referred to in the course of the play. A whole town is involved, not
simply one family whose drama might be representative of the plight of the community
[...]
55
Bonnet, Jean-Marie. "Society vs. the Individual in Arthur Miller's The Crucible." English
Studies 63.1 (Feb. 1982): 32-36. Rpt. in Drama Criticism. Vol. 31. Detroit: Gale,
2008. Literature Resource Center. Web. 6 Apr. 2011.
Note that if a student were assigned an essay with regard to the societal
structure of The Crucible, this article would provide ample evidence that the
student could use to support his/her own thesis statement in relation to the
text. The following is an example of how ideas from a source of literary
criticism (as exemplified in the excerpt above) can be effectively used in
student writing.
The Crucible, a clear act against the era of McCarthyism that instigated blacklisting
of countless undeserving individuals during the Soviet scare of the 1950s, is an
allegorical tale that transforms into the tale of John Proctor against the society of
Salem. And although this conflict is not obvious from the exposition of the play, it
becomes relevant as a clear metaphor for the author's, Arthur Miller, indignation at
his own singling out as a dissenter by the court system at the time. In essence, Miller
clearly uses the events of The Crucible and one man's stance against society to
communicate his dissatisfaction with his views on the government practices of the
early 1950s.
Throughout The Crucible it is evident that the entire town of Salem is victim to the
incessant ravings of young girls accusation of witchcraft in fear that not only their
own, but eventually the devious undermining of all the townspeople would be
exposed creating a detriment to the Puritan community. The involvement of entire
town is a direct result of the inherent imperfection of their religious beliefs and the
actual actions of the characters. It is clear that "A whole town is involved, not simply
one family whose drama might be representative of the plight of the community"
(Bonnet 1).
56
Formatting Entries for an MLA Style Works Cited Page
What follows are examples of how to correctly format sources in an MLA style works
cited page. Listed below are the titles of specific types of sources, followed by the
specific format required for each. Finally, listed below each entry is a practical example
of a source in the correct format. This list represents the most common sources cited by
students in the research process.
Please note that on any MLA formatted Works Cited page, there are specific
stylistic restrictions that are required:
The title Works Cited should be centered at the top of the page without any
enhancement (no quotes, bold, underline, etc.)



All entries should be double-spaced
In each entry, every line after the first should be indented (5 spaces) in order that
the first word of each entry be easily identified
Entries should appear in alphabetical order according to the first word in each
entry
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1) Book (single author):

author (last name, first name). Title of the book. City: Publisher, Year published.
Type.
Example:
Guillermo, Kathy Snow. Monkey Business. Washington, DC: National Press
Books, 1993. Print
2) A book with two or three authors (Note that authors’ names are listed in the
order in which they appear on the title page.)

First author (last, first), second author, and third author. Title of the book. City:
Publisher, Year published. Type.
57
Example:
Bystydzienski, Jill M., and Esteile P. Resnik. Women in Cross-Cultural Transitions.
Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1994. Print.
3) Book with more than three authors:

First author (last name, first name), et. al. title of the book. city: publisher, year
published. Type.
Example:
Marie, April, et al. Internet: Getting Started. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PTR Prentice Hall,
1994. Print.
4) Internet Site

author/editor of the article (last, first). “title of the article.” title of the site. Version
(if available). Publisher information. Type. date of access.
Example:
Guildenstern, Rosencrantz. “Everyone’s Favorite Flat Characters.” A Mother’s Love for
Her Son. Version 3.2. Denmark’s Systems. Web. 23 March 1998.
5) Dictionary Definition/Encyclopedia Entry
author of the article (last, first) – if present. “ title of the article.” title of the source. The
edition number ed. Date of the edition. Type.
Example:
“Fear.” Encyclopedia Britannica. 15th ed. 1997. Print.
6) Movie

title of the film. Dir. director’s name (first, last). Perf. Names of lead actors. studio,
year of release. Type.
58
Example:
Alien. Dir. Ridley Scott. Perf. Sigourney Weaver, Tom Skeritt. Twentieth Century Fox,
1979. Film.
7) Scholarly Journal

author’s name (last, first). “title of article.” Journal title volume number (year of
publication): page(s). Type.
Example:
Trumpener, Katie. “Memories Carved in Granite: Great War Memorials and Everyday
Life.” The Journal of American War and Battles 115 (2000): 1096-103. Print
8) Newspaper Article:

author’s name. “title of article” name of publication day month year, edition.:
page(s). Type.
Example:
Jeromack, Paul. “This Once, a David of the Art World Does Goliath a Favor.” New York
Times 13 July 2002, late ed.: B7+. Print.
9) Magazine Article (weekly):

Author (last, first). “article title.” Magazine title day month. year: page #(s). Type.
Example:
Amelar, Sarah. “Restoration on 42nd Street.” Architecture 7 Mar. 1998: 146-50. Print.
10) Magazine Article (monthly):

author (last, first). “article title.” magazine title month. year: page #(s). Type.
59
Example:
Amelar, Sarah. “Restoration on 42nd Street.” Architecture Mar. 1998: 146-50. Print.
11) Database:

Author name (last, first). “article title.” name of publication. Day Month Year:
pages. Name of Service. Type. Date of access.
Example:
Jimson, Daniel. “Cooling Trend in Antarctica.” Futurist. May-June 2002: 15. EBSCO
Host. Web. 22 May 2007.
12) Book with Multiple Articles

Author Name. “Title of article.” Title of book. Ed. Name of Editor. City of
Publication: Publisher, year. Page numbers. Type.
Example:
Laurence, Margaret. “The Loons.” Norton Anthology of Short Fiction. Ed. R.V. Cassill.
New York: Norton, 1990. 920-929. Print.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: On the page that follows is a completed works cited page. Note the format,
alphabetical order, spacing, and punctuation.
60
Works Cited
Amelar, Sarah. “Restoration on 42nd Street.” Architecture 7 Mar. 1998: 146-50. Print.
Bystydzienski, Jill M., and Esteile P. Resnik. Women in Cross-Cultural Transitions.
Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1994. Print.
Guildenstern, Rosencrantz. “Everyone’s Favorite Flat Characters.” A Mother’s Love for Her Son.
Version 3.2. Denmark’s Systems. Web. 23 March 1998.
Guillermo, Kathy Snow. Monkey Business. Washington, DC: National Press Books, 1993. Print.
Jeromack, Paul. “This Once, a David of the Art World Does Goliath a Favor.” New York
Times 13 July 2002, late ed.: B7+. Print.
Jimson, Daniel. “Cooling Trend in Antarctica.” Futurist. May-June 2002: 15. EBSCO Host.
Web. 22 May 2007.
Laurence, Margaret. “The Loons.” Norton Anthology of Short Fiction. Ed. R.V. Cassill.
New York: Norton, 1990. 920-929. Print.
Marie, April, et al. Internet: Getting Started. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PTR Prentice Hall,
1994. Print.
Trumpener, Katie. “Memories Carved in Granite: Great War Memorials and Everyday
Life.” The Journal of American War and Battles 115 (2000): 1096-103. Print.
61
Titles
Everything that you write should have a title. The title should reflect whatever topic is
being written about. For instance, if you are writing you paper about The Color Purple,
an acceptable title may be:

Acceptable: The Color of Oppression: An examination of Female Roles in The
Color Purple.
However, simply naming the topic of the paper is unacceptable

Unacceptable: Lit. Crit Paper: The Color Purple
Also, your own title should not be underlined, italicized or written in bold. It should
simply be in Times New Roman font size 12 (the same as the rest of your paper),
centered below the heading, prior to the start of the text.
Finally, please remember that, according to MLA format, any time a published title is
cited within your paper, you must italicize or underline it if it is the name of a novel,
play, or publication. If the title is in reference to an article, short story, or poem, it is
surrounded by quotation marks.
62
Headings and Headers
A heading IS NOT a header. It is typed at the beginning of the paper and only appears
once. It should contain the following information (in order) and is double-spaced.




Name
Instructor Name
Class Name
Date (day month year)
Note how in the example below, the heading appears in the top left corner of the
first page, prior to both the title and the start of the actual text:
Damian Smith
Mr. Daniels
English 11 Humanities
23 October 2010
The Importance of the “Chief” in Golding’s Lord of the Flies
Lord of the Flies is a complicated and often praised novel that many critics tend to see
as a commentary of social values in the contemporary world. While this is true,
complicated and deeper meanings exist through the analysis of individual characters of
the novel. The characters in the novel provide a framework from which the theories of
social values emerge. This becomes even more apparent when the theories of Jacques
Lacan are matched with the symbolic character of Jack Merridew in Golding’s novel.
Lord of the Flies follows a group of young English schoolboys who are evacuated from
England in the midst of a world war. Through some unforeseen misfortune, their plane
crashes on an uninhabited island where the boys are left to fend for themselves, free of
any adult supervision. As time passes on the island, the boys create their own society
and struggle for survival. Although the boys are eventually rescued, it is not before they
descend into the savagery and murder amongst themselves on the island in a struggle
for power in their own makeshift society.
The HEADING is not to be confused with the HEADER!
63
Header:

The header for your paper should appear in the top right corner of EVERY page.

It should consist of the author’s last name (i.e. – your last name) and the page
number corresponding with the header.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Smith 1
The Importance of the “Chief” in Golding’s Lord of the Flies
Lord of the Flies is a complicated and often praised novel that many critics tend to
see as a commentary of social values in the contemporary world. While this is true,
complicated and deeper meanings exist through the analysis of individual characters of
the novel. The characters in the novel provide a framework from which the theories of
social values emerge. This becomes even more apparent when the theories of Jacques
Lacan are matched with the symbolic character of Jack Merridew in Golding’s novel.
Lord of the Flies follows a group of young English schoolboys who are evacuated from
England in the midst of a world war. Through some unforeseen misfortune, their plane
crashes on an uninhabited island where the boys are left to fend for themselves, free of
any adult supervision. As time passes on the island, the boys create their own society
and struggle for survival. Although the boys are eventually rescued, it is not before they
descend into the savagery and murder amongst themselves on the island in a struggle
for power in their own makeshift society.
64
UPHS Library: Steps in the Research Process
Information Seeking Strategies:
As students progress in their learning, they must often use more complex strategies to
present their ideas. One of the ways to do this is through research. Listed here are
some general steps and guidelines that students can use to help assist in the research
process using the Upper Perkiomen High School library.






Think General with the catalog. Use your topical keywords.
You might have to use the index with reference sources to find your specific
topic.
Keyword searches yield the MOST results – use the Power Search tab to
combine keywords (and) and exclude keywords (not). Ex. Victorian and women
not fiction.
Produce a resource list by adding potential sources.
Click √add to my list and when finished, click my resource list on the left hand
menu. VIEW.
Print it out in bibliographic format (bottom of page: bibliography, click go).
65
Now look for books outside of this library:
Open Power library,





Under Find a Book, click open NetLibrary, this gives you online access to the
full texts of books.
Try keywords or combinations of keywords (using and to connect) in the search
window.
Scan through the results list, and when you find a book that seems relevant to
your topic, click View this book.
Search the book for your specific topic under search this e-content. You can
open and view specific pages.
You may read this book on line and take notes, but we are only allowed to print 2
pages at a time.
Now look for books that can be ordered from local public libraries and schools that
participate in Access PA.









In Power Library, under Find a Book again, locate Access Pennsylvania, click
on it.
When the Access Pennsylvania screen opens, click the tab on the top left:
Search the database.
Find your county on the map of Pennsylvania, click on it.
This screen says to select a library in the MCMARS region, click School
libraries.
Under word search, do a keyword search with your topic. Use quotation marks if
it is more than one word, ex: “French Revolution.” Click search.
Look at the list of results, click on the titles to get more information.
Checkmark the ones that you have selected, making sure that they are available
in more than 1 library and that they are not restricted circulation or non-circulating
books. If your topic is political, do not select books more than 5 years old. You
must click on the titles to get this information.
At the bottom of the full description of the book is a link like this: 3 Access PA
database libraries have this item. Click it open and scroll down to see which
school libraries carry these books and if they will allow check outs. To get back to
your list, click the blue button, return to browse.
You may checkmark desired titles and print out a list of books that you would like
to borrow. You can give it to us to borrow for you or you can take it to your local
public library. Your local public library will give you a card with an Access PA
sticker on it and they will borrow the book(s) for you.
Use databases to find full text articles from publications (newspapers, magazines,
journals). Here at UPHS, Power Library is our portal to the periodical databases.
66


Find and print a relevant article on your topic by using one of these databases:
o OmniFile Select or Sirs Discoverer.
Open the SIRS Knowledge Source database and change the search
descriptors to keyword search.
o To search in Sirs, use single keywords, or you may need to use the
advanced search to use Boolean logic, ex: teens and alcohol.
Examine the topic that appears; when you scroll down, you will see the sources on the
left. Click the magazine or newspaper articles.







For OmniFile Select, (under General Reference or Newspapers / Magazines),
open and use the search window on top. Use the same keywords and Boolean
operators.
Use your keywords connected by and. Use very few, specific keywords and put
quotation marks around phrases. Try different combinations and scan through
the results to find an article that is relevant to your research topic.
Narrow your results list by clicking on a subject on the left menu.
Limit your results to full-text articles (scroll down, it is a default) and then click
search.
Open the full text of the article (HTML or PDF).
Click the citation tab at the top of your screen to have complete citation
information displayed at the top of the article.
You can e-mail this article to yourself
Now find a webpage that is relevant to your topic and that is from a credible, reliable
source.
Use a search engine such as Google or one with educationally selected sites such as
those contained within the SIRS database or located through www.lii.org (Librarian’s
Index to the Internet.)

Examine this page carefully, going to the homepage (the .org, .net or whatever)
to answer all of the questions in the website evaluation and to be able to correctly
cite this web page:
o Who is the author, webmaster, or sponsor of the site?
o What does the site contain (check content, advertising?)
o When was the page created or last updated?
o Where does the information come from?
o Why are you using it? Does it add to the information that you are getting
from more reliable sources?
67
Now you have gathered potential sources for your research topic from multiple
types of sources, each one fulfills a different purpose, and not one is BETTER,
using all of them is BEST.
Use your Information:
You will first read your materials, taking notes with bibliographic information on the
source that it came from so that you can cite it on your Works Cited page.
Use www.citationmachine.net to help you format your citations using MLA. You can also
have a copy of my sample works cited page.
Following correct MLA documentation is Synthesis; the organization and
presentation of the paper or product of research (writing the paper, or making
the PowerPoint.)
Finally is the evaluation of the process. Did thinking the project through step by
step help to break it down? Did you go too quickly through a step in the
beginning that could have helped you focus the research or gather more
useful information?
68
Terms to Know:
Dependent Clause: a clause that contains a subject and predicate but cannot stand
alone as a sentence.
(i.e. Although the hour was quite late)
Subordinating Conjunctions: words that help introduce dependent clauses and establish
a relationship between dependent clauses (subject and predicate) and independent
clauses (a complete sentence = subject + verb + predicate)
Relationship
Words
Time
after, before, once, since, until, when, whenever, while
Reason or Cause as, because, since
Result or Effect in order that, so, so that, that
Condition
if, even if, provided that, unless
Contrast
although, even though, though, whereas
Location
where, wherever
Choice
than, whether
Overall Objective:

Use these words (listed above) to help you begin dependent clauses.
69
Subject-Verb Agreement
1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns
connected by and, use a plural verb.

She and her friends are at the fair.
2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a
singular verb.

The book or the pen is in the drawer.
3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun
joined by or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the
verb.

The boy or his friends run every day.

His friends or the boy runs every day.
4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject.
Don't is a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The
exception to this rule appears in the case of the first person and second person
pronouns I and you. With these pronouns, the contraction don't should be used.


He doesn't like it.
They don't like it.
5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb
agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.





One of the boxes is open
The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
70
6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone,
nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.

















Each of these hot dogs is juicy.
Everybody knows
Either is
The news is dollars
Five dollars is
Dollars are
These scissors are
Those trousers are
are many questions
is a question
The team runs
The committee decides
The family has
My family has never been able to agree
The crew are preparing
The President is
All of the books are
71
Common Grammar and Sentence Structure Errors
Sentence Structure Errors
Comma Splice: a comma separates two independent clauses
To fix: capital
; (semi-colon)
, conjunction (and, but, nor)
Sentence Fragment: an incomplete sentence that needs a noun, verb, or both
To fix: include a noun or verb OR
link one fragment with previous or following sentence
Run-On Sentence: two separate independent clauses not separated by punctuation
To fix: .capital
; (semi-colon)
, conjunction (and, but, nor)
Grammar (agreement)
Subject-Verb agreement: subjects and verbs must agree in number and person
Incorrect: Each one of the dogs in the show require a special kind of diet.
Correct: Each one of the dogs in the show requires a special kind of diet.
Pronoun-Antecedent agreement: pronouns and their antecedents—the words they refer
to—agree in person, number, and gender.
Incorrect: A person walks their dog through the park.
Correct: A person walks his or her dog through the park.
72
Usage - Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
A pronoun is a word used to stand for (or take the place of) a noun.
A word can refer to an earlier noun or pronoun in the sentence.
Here are nine pronoun-antecedent agreement rules. These rules are related to the rules
found in subject-verb agreement.
A phrase or clause between the subject and verb does not change the number of
the antecedent.
Example:
Singular indefinite pronoun antecedents take singular pronoun referents.
Example:

Plural indefinite pronoun antecedents require plural referents.
PLURAL: several, few, both, many
Example:

Some indefinite pronouns that are modified by a prepositional phrase may be
either singular or plural.
73
EITHER SINGULAR OR PLURAL: some, any, none, all, most
Examples:
Sugar is uncountable; therefore, the sentence has a singular referent pronoun.
Jewelry is uncountable; therefore, the sentence has a singular referent pronoun.
Examples:
Marbles are countable; therefore, the sentence has a plural referent pronoun.
Jewels are countable; therefore, the sentence has a plural referent pronoun.
SIMPLE SENTENCE|Compound subjects joined by and always take a plural
referent.
74
Example:
With compound subjects joined by or/nor, the referent pronoun agrees with the
antecedent closer to the pronoun.
Example #1 (plural antecedent closer to pronoun):
Example #2 (singular antecedent closer to pronoun):
Note: Example #1, with the plural antecedent closer to the pronoun, creates a smoother
sentence than example #2, which forces the use of the singular "his or her."
Collective Nouns (group, jury, crowd, team, etc.) may be singular or plural, depending
on meaning.
In this example, the jury is acting as one unit; therefore, the referent pronoun is singular.
In this example, the jury members are acting as twelve individuals; therefore, the
referent
75
pronoun is plural.
In this example, the jury members are acting as twelve individuals; therefore, the
referent
pronoun is plural.
Titles of single entities. (books, organizations, countries, etc.) take a singular referent.
EXAMPLES:
Plural form subjects with a singular meaning take a singular referent. (news,
measles, mumps, physics, etc)
EXAMPLE:
Every or Many a before a noun or a series of nouns requires a singular referent.
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EXAMPLES:
The number of vs A number of before a subject:

The number of is singular.

A number of is plural.
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Passive Voice
Showing whether or not a subject is performing or receiving an action is dependent
upon voice. Voice can only be shown with action verbs.
Active Voice – expresses an action performed by its subject.
Ex. – The tornado uprooted several large trees.
(The subject, tornado, performs the action.)
Passive Voice – expresses an action done to its subject.
Ex. – Several large trees were uprooted by the tornado.
(The subject, trees, receives the action.)
- In a passive sentence, the verb phrase always includes a form of be and the past
participle* of the main verb. Other helping verbs may also be included.
- The passive voice emphasizes the person or thing receiving the action rather than the
person or thing performing the action.
- The passive voice is often used when the performer (of the action) is not identified.

*- A participle is a verb phrase that can be used as an adjective. Past participles
usually end in -d or –ed.
Ex. – The plan was endorsed both by public officials and local residents.
(The performer is difficult to identify)
Ex. – She was sent an anonymous letter.
(The performer is unknown)
Ex. – The flowers were placed on Ms. Ortega’s desk when she wasn’t looking.
(The performer is deliberately concealed)
Avoid using the passive voice as much as possible. Using an active voice creates
writing that is much more direct and to the point!
Subordinating Conjunctions (to introduce dependent clauses)-or-Words to Help Develop
Dependent Clauses (for compound-complex thesis statements)
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The Nine Rules for Comma Usage
Purpose: More often than not, commas are used incorrectly. In an effort to help
students and teachers, this page cites nine simple rules for using commas.
1.Commas with Dates

With dates, use a comma to separate the day and the year.
2.Commas with Places and Addresses

Use commas to separate the names of cities and states.
3.Commas with Words, Phrases, and Clauses in a Series

A series is three or more words, phrases, or clauses. All but the last item in a
series should be followed by a comma.
4.Commas with Coordination


Coordination means that two word groups that can stand alone as sentences
(main clauses) are joined by and, but, or, for, so, or yet (coordinating
conjunctions).
Place a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, so or yet) that
joins two main clauses.
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5.Commas with Introductory Words, Phrases, and Clauses



Use a comma after introductory words (words that come before the subject of the
sentence).
Use a comma after an introductory phrase (a phrase that comes before the
subject of the sentence).
Use a comma after an introductory subordinate clause (a subordinate clause that
comes before the subject of the sentence).
6.Commas with Interrupters

An interrupter is a word of phrase that interrupts the flow or main idea of a
sentence.

Interrupters are set off from the rest of the sentence with commas.

Transitions are often considered interrupters and are set off from the rest of the
sentence with commas.

Nonessential elements are set off from the rest of the sentence with commas.
7.Commas with Coordinate Modifiers


Use a comma to separate coordinate modifiers not already separated by and.
Coordinate modifiers describe the same word equally.
8.Commas with Direct Address


In direct address, you use the name of the person or animal you are speaking to.
Names used in direct address are set off with commas.
9.Commas with Direct Quotations

In direct quotations, commas are use to separate the words that identify the
speaker from the words that are spoken.
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Creating a MLA Paper
Step 1: Turn on Hide/Show
Formatting Icon
Step 2: Highlight the cursor at
insertion point and make sure
margins are set to 1” top and bottom
(to check-go to page layout &
margins in the page set up group &
click on margins & change if
necessary)
Step 3: Change Font to Times New
Roman
Step 4: Change Font Size to 12 pt.
Step 5: Click on the Paragraph
dialog box (lower right hand corner)
and the paragraph dialog box will
appear.
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Creating a MLA
Paper
Step 6 Change line spacing
to double
Step 7 Change before and
after spacing to 0 pt. Make
sure not set to Auto or left
blank. It will create havoc
later
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Creating a MLA
Paper
Step 8: Insert the header
click the Insert tab
Step 9: Click page number
down arrow in Header &
Footer group select Top of
Page and then select Plain
Number 3
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Creating a MLA
Paper
Step 10: The page number
will be inserted
automatically right aligned
and the cursor is in front of
the number - type your last
name then hit the spacebar
on the keyboard to insert a
space between your last
name and the page number
Step 11: Highlight your
last name and page number
then click on the Home tab
and change the font to
Times New Roman and 12
pt. Then close the header
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Creating a MLA Paper
Step 12: Put your cursor on the first line of
the document and type your first and last
name, press enter, type teacher’s name,
press enter, type course name, press enter,
type day, press spacebar, type month, press
spacebar, type year, press enter.
Step 13: Click on the center alignment icon
on the home tab on the paragraph group and
type the title of the paper. Press enter and
click on the left alignment icon, press tab to
indent the first line and type the body of
your report. When completed typing the
report press CTRL and enter at the same
time to start a new page. This will create a
hard page break and you now can type your
references page.
(“Russell”)
"The First Page of an MLA Paper." Graphic. MLA Formatting and Style Guide. The Purdue Owl. Tony Russell, Allen Brizee, and
Russell Keck. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue U Writing Lab., 2011. Web. 20 Oct 2011.
<http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/>.
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Creating a MLA Paper
Step 14: On your new page click on the
center alignment and type Works Cited and
press enter. Click on left alignment and
start to type your references. Remember
that Word has a feature called word wrap
thus you want the reference to continue on
the next line until you finished typing that
reference. After you finish typing that
reference press enter to type the next
reference – continue to do the same until all
references are typed. Turn on the
hide/show paragraph icon after all
references are typed and highlight all the
references including the last paragraph
mark.
Step 15: Click on the paragraph dialog box
on the home tab; click on special down
arrow and select Hanging and make sure
before and after have 0 and double space is
selected.
Step 16: While works cited is highlighted
click on the A to Z icon on home tab
Step 17: Sort by paragraph, text, and
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ascending.